. 2021 Oct 3;29:145. doi: 10.1186/s13049-021-00953-8

Table 2.

Performance of DLM for screening sepsis and septic shock using electrocardiography

Prediction model	Internal validation	External validation
Performance for screening sepsis
DLM using 12-lead ECG	0.901 (0.882–0.920)	0.904 (0.854–0.953)	0.776 (0.767–0.785)	0.067 (0.055–0.078)	0.998 (0.997–0.999)	0.863 (0.846–0.879)	0.765 (0.725–0.804)	0.810 (0.805–0.816)	0.083 (0.075–0.091)	0.994 (0.992–0.995)
DLM using 6-lead ECG	0.882 (0.856–0.907)	0.815 (0.749–0.880)	0.824 (0.816–0.833)	0.076 (0.062–0.089)	0.996 (0.994–0.998)	0.856 (0.841–0.872)	0.794 (0.756–0.832)	0.766 (0.760–0.772)	0.071 (0.064–0.078)	0.994 (0.993–0.995)
DLM using 1-lead ECG	0.874 (0.850–0.899)	0.933 (0.891–0.975)	0.688 (0.678–0.698)	0.050 (0.042–0.059)	0.998 (0.997–0.999)	0.845 (0.827–0.863)	0.796 (0.759–0.834)	0.746 (0.739–0.752)	0.066 (0.059–0.072)	0.994 (0.993–0.995)
C-reactive protein	0.723 (0.670–0.776)	0.638 (0.550–0.725)	0.763 (0.748–0.778)	0.091 (0.071–0.111)	0.983 (0.977–0.988)	0.741 (0.716–0.766)	0.607 (0.561–0.654)	0.783 (0.776–0.791)	0.087 (0.077–0.097)	0.983 (0.981–0.986)
Body temperature	0.671 (0.621–0.722)	0.679 (0.599–0.759)	0.667 (0.655–0.679)	0.041 (0.032–0.049)	0.990 (0.987–0.993)	0.671 (0.642–0.700)	0.669 (0.624–0.714)	0.601 (0.593–0.608)	0.044 (0.039–0.049)	0.985 (0.983–0.987)
Performance for screening septic shock
DLM using 12-lead ECG	0.906 (0.877–0.936)	0.895 (0.815–0.974)	0.822 (0.814–0.831)	0.036 (0.026–0.045)	0.999 (0.998–1.000)	0.899 (0.872–0.925)	0.807 (0.743–0.870)	0.875 (0.871–0.880)	0.046 (0.038–0.054)	0.998 (0.998–0.999)
DLM using 6-lead ECG	0.881 (0.843–0.918)	0.842 (0.747–0.937)	0.792 (0.783–0.801)	0.029 (0.021–0.037)	0.999 (0.998–0.999)	0.893 (0.868–0.917)	0.880 (0.828–0.932)	0.749 (0.743–0.755)	0.026 (0.021–0.030)	0.999 (0.998–0.999)
DLM using 1-lead ECG	0.879 (0.841–0.916)	0.930 (0.864–0.996)	0.684 (0.673–0.694)	0.021 (0.016–0.027)	0.999 (0.999–1.000)	0.860 (0.833–0.888)	0.773 (0.706–0.840)	0.801 (0.795–0.806)	0.028 (0.023–0.033)	0.998 (0.997–0.999)
C-reactive protein	0.676 (0.590–0.762)	0.745 (0.625–0.865)	0.573 (0.556–0.590)	0.027 (0.019–0.036)	0.993 (0.989–0.997)	0.724 (0.680–0.768)	0.585 (0.505–0.665)	0.781 (0.774–0.788)	0.030 (0.023–0.036)	0.994 (0.992–0.995)
Body temperature	0.659 (0.584–0.734)	0.685 (0.561–0.809)	0.663 (0.651–0.674)	0.017 (0.011–0.022)	0.996 (0.994–0.998)	0.680 (0.631–0.730)	0.697 (0.622–0.773)	0.596 (0.588–0.604)	0.016 (0.013–0.019)	0.995 (0.994–0.997)

Prediction model

Internal validation

External validation

AUC (95% CI)

SEN (95% CI)

SPE (95% CI)

PPV (95% CI)

NPV (95% CI)

AUC (95% CI)

SEN (95% CI)

SPE (95% CI)

PPV (95% CI)

NPV (95% CI)

Performance for screening sepsis

DLM using 12-lead ECG

0.901

(0.882–0.920)

0.904

(0.854–0.953)

0.776

(0.767–0.785)

0.067

(0.055–0.078)

0.998

(0.997–0.999)

0.863

(0.846–0.879)

0.765

(0.725–0.804)

0.810

(0.805–0.816)

0.083

(0.075–0.091)

0.994

(0.992–0.995)

DLM using 6-lead ECG

0.882

(0.856–0.907)

0.815

(0.749–0.880)

0.824

(0.816–0.833)

0.076

(0.062–0.089)

0.996

(0.994–0.998)

0.856

(0.841–0.872)

0.794

(0.756–0.832)

0.766

(0.760–0.772)

0.071

(0.064–0.078)

0.994

(0.993–0.995)

DLM using 1-lead ECG

0.874

(0.850–0.899)

0.933

(0.891–0.975)

0.688

(0.678–0.698)

0.050

(0.042–0.059)

0.998

(0.997–0.999)

0.845

(0.827–0.863)

0.796

(0.759–0.834)

0.746

(0.739–0.752)

0.066

(0.059–0.072)

0.994

(0.993–0.995)

C-reactive protein

0.723

(0.670–0.776)

0.638

(0.550–0.725)

0.763

(0.748–0.778)

0.091

(0.071–0.111)

0.983

(0.977–0.988)

0.741

(0.716–0.766)

0.607

(0.561–0.654)

0.783

(0.776–0.791)

0.087

(0.077–0.097)

0.983

(0.981–0.986)

Body temperature

0.671

(0.621–0.722)

0.679

(0.599–0.759)

0.667

(0.655–0.679)

0.041

(0.032–0.049)

0.990

(0.987–0.993)

0.671

(0.642–0.700)

0.669

(0.624–0.714)

0.601

(0.593–0.608)

0.044

(0.039–0.049)

0.985

(0.983–0.987)

Performance for screening septic shock

DLM using 12-lead ECG

0.906

(0.877–0.936)

0.895

(0.815–0.974)

0.822

(0.814–0.831)

0.036

(0.026–0.045)

0.999

(0.998–1.000)

0.899

(0.872–0.925)

0.807

(0.743–0.870)

0.875

(0.871–0.880)

0.046

(0.038–0.054)

0.998

(0.998–0.999)

DLM using 6-lead ECG

0.881

(0.843–0.918)

0.842

(0.747–0.937)

0.792

(0.783–0.801)

0.029

(0.021–0.037)

0.999

(0.998–0.999)

0.893

(0.868–0.917)

0.880

(0.828–0.932)

0.749

(0.743–0.755)

0.026

(0.021–0.030)

0.999

(0.998–0.999)

DLM using 1-lead ECG

0.879

(0.841–0.916)

0.930

(0.864–0.996)

0.684

(0.673–0.694)

0.021

(0.016–0.027)

0.999

(0.999–1.000)

0.860

(0.833–0.888)

0.773

(0.706–0.840)

0.801

(0.795–0.806)

0.028

(0.023–0.033)

0.998

(0.997–0.999)

C-reactive protein

0.676

(0.590–0.762)

0.745

(0.625–0.865)

0.573

(0.556–0.590)

0.027

(0.019–0.036)

0.993

(0.989–0.997)

0.724

(0.680–0.768)

0.585

(0.505–0.665)

0.781

(0.774–0.788)

0.030

(0.023–0.036)

0.994

(0.992–0.995)

Body temperature

0.659

(0.584–0.734)

0.685

(0.561–0.809)

0.663

(0.651–0.674)

0.017

(0.011–0.022)

0.996

(0.994–0.998)

0.680

(0.631–0.730)

0.697

(0.622–0.773)

0.596

(0.588–0.604)

0.016

(0.013–0.019)

0.995

(0.994–0.997)

AUC area under the receiver operating characteristic curve; DLM deep learning-based model; ECG electrocardiography; NPV negative predictive value; PPV positive predictive value; SEN sensitivity; SPE specificity