TABLE 3.
Copositivity Analysis – Methamphetamine Positive Versus Negative Population Odds Ratios
| Region/Year | Benzodiazepines | Buprenorphine | Cocaine | Alcohol | Fentanyl | Heroin | Methadone | Opioids | THC |
| US Total | |||||||||
| 2014 | 1.86 (1.49–2.33)‡ | 1.7 (1.34–2.16)‡ | 2.44 (1.97–3.03)‡ | 1.38 (1.09–1.74)‡ | 1.11 (0.67–1.84) | 4.38 (3.25–5.91)‡ | 2.23 (1.49–3.35)‡ | 2.59 (2.13–3.14)‡ | 2.65 (2.21–3.19)‡ |
| 2015 | 1.83 (1.61–2.08)‡ | 1.64 (1.39–1.94)‡ | 1.93 (1.66–2.25)‡ | 1.01 (0.84–1.22) | 1.69 (1.33–2.13)‡ | 4.2 (3.5–5.05)‡ | 1.65 (1.11–2.45)† | 2.8 (2.49–3.16)‡ | 2.47 (2.18–2.8)‡ |
| 2016 | 2.01 (1.77–2.28)‡ | 1.56 (1.31–1.85)‡ | 2.21 (1.91–2.56)‡ | 1.11 (0.93–1.33) | 2.15 (1.71–2.69)‡ | 5.38 (4.42–6.56)‡ | 1.78 (1.34–2.35)‡ | 2.95 (2.58–3.38)‡ | 2.44 (2.15–2.78)‡ |
| 2017 | 1.79 (1.55–2.07)‡ | 1.92 (1.62–2.26)‡ | 2.26 (1.94–2.64)‡ | 1.1 (0.94–1.29) | 2.95 (2.43–3.57)‡ | 5.41 (4.18–7.01)‡ | 2.19 (1.62–2.97)‡ | 2.59 (2.23–3)‡ | 2.74 (2.41–3.12)‡ |
| 2018 | 1.87 (1.64–2.14)‡ | 2.01 (1.68–2.39)‡ | 2.54 (2.17–2.97)‡ | 1.04 (0.88–1.23) | 4.05 (3.36–4.88)‡ | 7.5 (5.75–9.78)‡ | 1.6 (1.02–2.51)∗ | 3.41 (2.96–3.92)‡ | 2.82 (2.5–3.19)‡ |
| 2019 | 1.6 (1.38–1.85)‡ | 2.01 (1.71–2.37)‡ | 2.43 (2.1–2.81)‡ | 1.09 (0.95–1.26) | 4.35 (3.73–5.08)‡ | 8.09 (6.31–10.36)‡ | 1.8 (1.24–2.6)‡ | 3.41 (2.98–3.89)‡ | 2.62 (2.34–2.93)‡ |
| East North Central | |||||||||
| 2014 | 1.88 (1.19–2.98)‡ | 2.33 (1.26–4.34)‡ | 2.18 (1.23–3.85)‡ | 1.04 (0.54–2.01) | 1.9 (0.57–6.32) | 3.83 (2.08–7.06)‡ | 3.24 (1.55–6.77)‡ | 3.54 (2.21–5.65)‡ | 2.48 (1.65–3.71)‡ |
| 2015 | 2.06 (1.52–2.8)‡ | 1.92 (1.33–2.78)‡ | 2.48 (1.78–3.45)‡ | 0.83 (0.53–1.3) | 3.56 (2.3–5.49)‡ | 3.13 (2.19–4.47)‡ | 1.67 (0.8–3.5) | 3.64 (2.71–4.89)‡ | 2.25 (1.68–3)‡ |
| 2016 | 1.99 (1.48–2.66)‡ | 1.92 (1.39–2.66)‡ | 2.93 (2.18–3.94)‡ | 0.9 (0.61–1.31) | 3.9 (2.83–5.36)‡ | 3.48 (2.49–4.88)‡ | 0.9 (0.42–1.91) | 3.4 (2.6–4.44)‡ | 2.18 (1.67–2.84)‡ |
| 2017 | 1.81 (1.3–2.51)‡ | 2.31 (1.64–3.24)‡ | 2.81 (2.03–3.89)‡ | 0.92 (0.62–1.38) | 4.99 (3.56–7.01)‡ | 4.14 (2.69–6.38)‡ | 1.92 (0.9–4.08) | 3.05 (2.28–4.09)‡ | 2.36 (1.81–3.07)‡ |
| 2018 | 1.66 (1.27–2.17)‡ | 2.06 (1.59–2.68)‡ | 2.62 (2.06–3.35)‡ | 0.92 (0.68–1.25) | 5.38 (4.23–6.83)‡ | 4.76 (3.31–6.85)‡ | 0.97 (0.45–2.08) | 3.4 (2.72–4.25)‡ | 2.22 (1.81–2.72)‡ |
| 2019 | 1.72 (1.37–2.14)‡ | 1.75 (1.39–2.21)‡ | 2.15 (1.76–2.62)‡ | 0.82 (0.64–1.06) | 4.35 (3.64–5.21)‡ | 4.57 (3.34–6.24)‡ | 1.67 (1.22–2.3)‡ | 3.53 (2.94–4.24)‡ | 2.12 (1.8–2.5)‡ |
| East South Central | |||||||||
| 2014 | 2.86 (2.07–3.95)‡ | 2.69 (1.71–4.22)‡ | 2.19 (1.3–3.67)‡ | 1.34 (0.76–2.34) | 1.79 (0.53–6) | 3.14 (1.11–8.92)† | 2.79 (1.46–5.36)‡ | 2.15 (1.53–3.03)‡ | 2.74 (2.01–3.74)‡ |
| 2015 | 2.45 (1.93–3.11)‡ | 1.98 (1.43–2.73)‡ | 1.78 (1.22–2.6)‡ | 1.32 (0.93–1.87) | 1.91 (0.98–3.72) | 4.07 (2.44–6.8)‡ | 2.35 (1.41–3.91)‡ | 2.4 (1.88–3.07)‡ | 3.19 (2.55–3.99)‡ |
| 2016 | 2.31 (1.82–2.92)‡ | 1.65 (1.2–2.27)‡ | 1.89 (1.33–2.7)‡ | 1.24 (0.91–1.68) | 3.69 (2.42–5.64)‡ | 5.38 (3.39–8.52)‡ | 2.29 (1.15–4.57)† | 2.39 (1.89–3.01)‡ | 2.88 (2.32–3.58)‡ |
| 2017 | 2.16 (1.74–2.7)‡ | 2.04 (1.51–2.77)‡ | 1.99 (1.46–2.71)‡ | 1.25 (0.94–1.67) | 4.8 (3.52–6.56)‡ | 5.85 (3.76–9.1)‡ | 1.46 (0.7–3.05) | 2.8 (2.26–3.47)‡ | 3.46 (2.84–4.22)‡ |
| 2018 | 1.83 (1.47–2.29)‡ | 1.91 (1.45–2.53)‡ | 1.81 (1.35–2.43)‡ | 1.02 (0.79–1.33) | 4.71 (3.68–6.04)‡ | 5.51 (3.69–8.24)‡ | 1.25 (0.56–2.77) | 3.27 (2.67–4.01)‡ | 3.41 (2.84–4.1)‡ |
| 2019 | 1.62 (1.26–2.09)‡ | 1.84 (1.42–2.4)‡ | 1.68 (1.23–2.29)‡ | 0.99 (0.75–1.29) | 3.94 (3.13–4.96)‡ | 4.63 (3.05–7.01)‡ | 1.12 (0.6–2.09) | 2.85 (2.3–3.55)‡ | 2.79 (2.3–3.39)‡ |
| Mid Atlantic | |||||||||
| 2014 | 2.74 (1.57–4.76)‡ | 2.45 (1.27–4.76)‡ | 2.63 (1.43–4.81)‡ | 1.5 (0.62–3.63) | 0.92 (0.1–8.31) | 2.89 (1.38–6.05)‡ | 1.73 (0.7–4.27) | 2.49 (1.4–4.43)‡ | 2.49 (1.35–4.59)‡ |
| 2015 | 2.14 (1.21–3.78)‡ | 2.66 (1.26–5.6)‡ | 2.37 (1.26–4.47)‡ | 0.56 (0.17–1.83) | 2.98 (1–8.86)∗ | 4.15 (2.04–8.44)‡ | 1.57 (0.58–4.24) | 3.81 (2.21–6.57)‡ | 2.14 (1.13–4.06)† |
| 2016 | 2.6 (1.44–4.7)‡ | 2.09 (0.93–4.67) | 3.01 (1.54–5.86)‡ | 1.12 (0.5–2.51) | 6.16 (2.91–13.02)‡ | 6.36 (3–13.49)‡ | 1.58 (0.38–6.54) | 3.91 (2.06–7.44)‡ | 2.03 (1.08–3.78)† |
| 2017 | 2.19 (0.94–5.06) | 3.01 (1.2–7.57)† | 2.94 (1.24–6.98)‡ | 0.83 (0.28–2.49) | 4.92 (1.7–14.27)‡ | 7.57 (2.48–23.08)‡ | 2.24 (0.41–12.34) | 2.01 (0.86–4.66) | 2.21 (1.06–4.61)∗ |
| 2018 | 3 (1.32–6.83)‡ | 5.64 (2.29–13.92)‡ | 3.07 (1.23–7.64)‡ | 0.8 (0.28–2.33) | 6.38 (2.39–17.07)‡ | 7.71 (1.95–30.45)‡ | 2.03 (0.22–18.99) | 3.34 (1.45–7.71)‡ | 2.38 (1.15–4.94)† |
| 2019 | 1.92 (0.83–4.43) | 6.04 (2.69–13.6)‡ | 2.87 (1.27–6.49)‡ | 1.14 (0.49–2.69) | 6.17 (2.47–15.38)‡ | 4.78 (1.04–21.91)∗ | 2 (0.21–18.92) | 2.12 (0.91–4.95) | 1.8 (0.95–3.42) |
| Mountain | |||||||||
| 2014 | 1.43 (1.15–1.79)‡ | 1.29 (0.77–2.16) | 2.87 (1.97–4.19)‡ | 1.39 (1.07–1.79)‡ | 0.55 (0.15–1.97) | 7.8 (5.32–11.44)‡ | 2.23 (1.43–3.47)‡ | 2.04 (1.61–2.58)‡ | 2.35 (1.91–2.88)‡ |
| 2015 | 1.51 (1.22–1.86)‡ | 1.61 (1.04–2.49)† | 2.13 (1.44–3.17)‡ | 1.24 (0.98–1.58) | 0.61 (0.21–1.74) | 11.85 (8.64–16.26)‡ | 2.44 (1.58–3.76)‡ | 2.73 (2.21–3.38)‡ | 2.21 (1.83–2.68)‡ |
| 2016 | 1.79 (1.35–2.35)‡ | 1.74 (1.05–2.9)† | 2.63 (1.72–4.03)‡ | 1.29 (0.97–1.73) | 0.55 (0.15–2) | 10.67 (7.32–15.56)‡ | 3.25 (2.19–4.83)‡ | 3.12 (2.37–4.12)‡ | 2.42 (1.93–3.04)‡ |
| 2017 | 1.63 (1.2–2.22)‡ | 1.88 (1.12–3.18)‡ | 2.88 (1.84–4.5)‡ | 1.38 (1.01–1.88)∗ | 1.3 (0.53–3.16) | 12.7 (8.47–19.04)‡ | 5.72 (3.32–9.87)‡ | 3.66 (2.75–4.85)‡ | 2.23 (1.75–2.85)‡ |
| 2018 | 1.79 (1.31–2.44)‡ | 2.69 (1.63–4.43)‡ | 3.25 (2.01–5.26)‡ | 1.45 (1.08–1.94)‡ | 1.92 (0.93–3.96) | 19.84 (12.96–30.37)‡ | 3.35 (1.93–5.8)‡ | 3.75 (2.86–4.92)‡ | 2.15 (1.69–2.73)‡ |
| 2019 | 1.3 (0.99–1.71) | 2.15 (1.49–3.12)‡ | 3 (2–4.5)‡ | 1.17 (0.92–1.51) | 3.62 (2.5–5.25)‡ | 18.56 (12.28–28.07)‡ | 2.89 (1.76–4.73)‡ | 3.92 (3.15–4.88)‡ | 1.88 (1.54–2.3)‡ |
| New England | |||||||||
| 2014 | 0.83 (0.07–9.7) | 3.3 (0.34–32.53) | 4.64 (0.55–39.38) | 1.92 (0.18–20.27) | 1.45 (0.02–127.64) | 4.94 (0.31–79.97) | 1.49 (0.02–128.79) | 3.04 (0.39–23.86) | 1.89 (0.27–13.33) |
| 2015 | 1.27 (0.34–4.7) | 1.09 (0.25–4.68) | 2.47 (0.63–9.65) | 0.62 (0.1–3.64) | 6.64 (1.76–25.07)‡ | 3.33 (0.67–16.49) | 0.49 (0.01–39.24) | 2.59 (0.8–8.33) | 1.53 (0.45–5.2) |
| 2016 | 2.87 (0.85–9.69) | 1.38 (0.32–5.93) | 3.5 (0.98–12.47) | 0.77 (0.13–4.64) | 9.75 (3.25–29.28)‡ | 6.8 (1.18–39.09)† | 1.58 (0.12–21.37) | 3.21 (0.86–12.01) | 1.73 (0.48–6.2) |
| 2017 | 2.05 (0.57–7.42) | 2.18 (0.62–7.68) | 3.07 (0.91–10.43) | 0.84 (0.23–3.09) | 9.15 (3.15–26.57)‡ | 2.81 (0.27–28.84) | 1.36 (0.1–18.47) | 1.88 (0.49–7.26) | 3.14 (0.97–10.16) |
| 2018 | 2.54 (0.86–7.48) | 2.24 (0.6–8.43) | 4.56 (1.61–12.91)‡ | 0.58 (0.14–2.43) | 11.21 (4.23–29.68)‡ | 3.76 (0.43–32.6) | 0.43 (0.01–35.32) | 3.73 (1.12–12.38)† | 3.12 (1.1–8.87)∗ |
| 2019 | 1.8 (0.49–6.53) | 2.65 (0.7–10.01) | 3.23 (1.06–9.88)∗ | 0.83 (0.24–2.92) | 8.57 (3.19–23)‡ | 10.81 (1.51–77.61)‡ | 1.02 (0.04–24.2) | 6.16 (2.03–18.71)‡ | 2.64 (0.98–7.14) |
| Pacific | |||||||||
| 2014 | 1.5 (1.25–1.8)‡ | 1.23 (0.86–1.76) | 2.34 (1.65–3.32)‡ | 1.4 (1.15–1.71)‡ | 0.65 (0.26–1.66) | 11.64 (8.55–15.86)‡ | 2.21 (1.54–3.17)‡ | 3.46 (2.9–4.13)‡ | 2.64 (2.24–3.11)‡ |
| 2015 | 1.51 (1.29–1.78)‡ | 1.68 (1.28–2.22)‡ | 2.28 (1.69–3.07)‡ | 1.33 (1.12–1.57)‡ | 0.89 (0.42–1.9) | 11.75 (8.92–15.48)‡ | 1.9 (1.32–2.73)‡ | 3.81 (3.27–4.44)‡ | 2.49 (2.17–2.86)‡ |
| 2016 | 1.21 (1.01–1.46)∗ | 1.42 (1.06–1.9)‡ | 2.38 (1.77–3.2)‡ | 1.22 (1.03–1.44)‡ | 0.86 (0.44–1.69) | 13.08 (10.06–17)‡ | 1.95 (1.33–2.85)‡ | 3.99 (3.4–4.68)‡ | 2.19 (1.91–2.5)‡ |
| 2017 | 1 (0.83–1.22) | 1.75 (1.37–2.24)‡ | 1.81 (1.35–2.44)‡ | 1.17 (1–1.38)∗ | 1.59 (0.97–2.62) | 17.13 (12.87–22.8)‡ | 2.4 (1.65–3.49)‡ | 4.58 (3.93–5.34)‡ | 2.18 (1.93–2.48)‡ |
| 2018 | 0.99 (0.81–1.22) | 1.62 (1.27–2.08)‡ | 1.95 (1.42–2.67)‡ | 1.16 (0.99–1.37) | 2.66 (1.74–4.08)‡ | 20.74 (16.05–26.81)‡ | 2.48 (1.72–3.58)‡ | 6.85 (5.87–8)‡ | 2.18 (1.92–2.48)‡ |
| 2019 | 0.86 (0.68–1.08) | 1.69 (1.33–2.15)‡ | 1.95 (1.38–2.76)‡ | 1.14 (0.97–1.35) | 4.14 (2.76–6.22)‡ | 33.17 (24.38–45.13)‡ | 2.23 (1.42–3.49)‡ | 8.09 (6.83–9.57)‡ | 2.17 (1.9–2.48)‡ |
| South Atlantic | |||||||||
| 2014 | 2.11 (1.62–2.74)‡ | 1.43 (0.97–2.1) | 2.33 (1.7–3.21)‡ | 1.2 (0.82–1.76) | 1.2 (0.45–3.17) | 2.8 (1.56–5)‡ | 2.52 (1.57–4.07)‡ | 2.74 (2.09–3.59)‡ | 2.5 (1.94–3.22)‡ |
| 2015 | 1.92 (1.56–2.38)‡ | 1.28 (0.92–1.79) | 1.61 (1.22–2.12)‡ | 1.07 (0.81–1.41) | 1.38 (0.76–2.51) | 1.81 (1.19–2.75)‡ | 1.67 (1.06–2.63)† | 2.27 (1.84–2.8)‡ | 2.56 (2.09–3.12)‡ |
| 2016 | 1.86 (1.4–2.46)‡ | 1.36 (0.87–2.11) | 2.11 (1.53–2.91)‡ | 1.03 (0.72–1.47) | 1.92 (1.15–3.2)‡ | 2.58 (1.57–4.23)‡ | 1.55 (0.9–2.69) | 2.45 (1.85–3.25)‡ | 2.31 (1.8–2.96)‡ |
| 2017 | 1.61 (1.12–2.3)‡ | 1.86 (1.13–3.07)‡ | 1.75 (1.19–2.58)‡ | 0.92 (0.57–1.5) | 1.96 (1.18–3.23)‡ | 2.42 (1.29–4.55)‡ | 1.85 (0.94–3.65) | 2.13 (1.51–3.01)‡ | 2.33 (1.7–3.18)‡ |
| 2018 | 1.43 (0.98–2.1) | 1.22 (0.71–2.08) | 2.45 (1.68–3.59)‡ | 1.2 (0.76–1.88) | 2.55 (1.6–4.09)‡ | 4.72 (2.52–8.83)‡ | 1.78 (0.82–3.87) | 2.37 (1.66–3.37)‡ | 2.73 (2–3.73)‡ |
| 2019 | 1.62 (1.15–2.27)‡ | 1.33 (0.85–2.07) | 2.55 (1.81–3.6)‡ | 1.05 (0.73–1.5) | 3.36 (2.27–4.97)‡ | 5.84 (3.35–10.16)‡ | 1.76 (0.9–3.41) | 2.32 (1.71–3.14)‡ | 2.56 (1.94–3.37)‡ |
| West North Central | |||||||||
| 2014 | 1.77 (1.22–2.57)‡ | 0.68 (0.28–1.63) | 1.22 (0.55–2.69) | 1.27 (0.82–1.97) | 2.13 (0.53–8.58) | 2.43 (0.71–8.32) | 1.43 (0.66–3.11) | 1.96 (1.32–2.91)‡ | 3.23 (2.34–4.47)‡ |
| 2015 | 1.73 (1.38–2.18)‡ | 1.44 (0.83–2.49) | 0.98 (0.6–1.6) | 1.36 (1.06–1.75)‡ | 1.39 (0.54–3.55) | 2.99 (1.81–4.93)‡ | 1.19 (0.69–2.05) | 2.49 (1.96–3.16)‡ | 2.9 (2.38–3.54)‡ |
| 2016 | 1.67 (1.35–2.06)‡ | 1.34 (0.82–2.19) | 0.93 (0.61–1.41) | 1.22 (0.98–1.53) | 2.09 (1.3–3.37)‡ | 2.66 (1.74–4.07)‡ | 1.08 (0.64–1.82) | 2.63 (2.11–3.28)‡ | 3.11 (2.61–3.7)‡ |
| 2017 | 1.91 (1.43–2.55)‡ | 1.4 (0.82–2.41) | 1.45 (0.81–2.62) | 1.53 (1.14–2.04)‡ | 3.46 (1.95–6.16)‡ | 6.43 (2.89–14.31)‡ | 1.85 (0.81–4.23) | 2.44 (1.79–3.35)‡ | 3.16 (2.52–3.97)‡ |
| 2018 | 2.06 (1.43–2.96)‡ | 2.06 (1.15–3.66)‡ | 2.4 (1.17–4.9)‡ | 1.27 (0.86–1.86) | 10.38 (5.35–20.13)‡ | 18.37 (6.46–52.22)‡ | 1.82 (0.62–5.37) | 4.46 (3.01–6.61)‡ | 3.44 (2.62–4.52)‡ |
| 2019 | 1.71 (1.21–2.41)‡ | 1.36 (0.76–2.41) | 2.66 (1.56–4.54)‡ | 1.59 (1.15–2.19)‡ | 5.6 (3.44–9.11)‡ | 7.1 (3.42–14.75)‡ | 2.62 (1.1–6.25)† | 2.94 (2.04–4.24)‡ | 4.01 (3.12–5.15)‡ |
| West South Central | |||||||||
| 2014 | 2.74 (2.07–3.62)‡ | 1.54 (0.83–2.85) | 2.79 (1.89–4.12)‡ | 1.52 (1.05–2.2)† | 0.6 (0.1–3.65) | 5.59 (2.13–14.66)‡ | 3.32 (1.68–6.56)‡ | 2.38 (1.76–3.22)‡ | 4.11 (3.23–5.22)‡ |
| 2015 | 2.22 (1.8–2.75)‡ | 1.58 (0.95–2.63) | 1.91 (1.36–2.68)‡ | 1.22 (0.93–1.6) | 0.78 (0.23–2.63) | 3.09 (1.34–7.14)‡ | 3.3 (1.9–5.73)‡ | 2.1 (1.66–2.66)‡ | 3.57 (2.96–4.29)‡ |
| 2016 | 2.29 (1.71–3.07)‡ | 1.32 (0.73–2.41) | 1.73 (1.06–2.82)† | 1.37 (0.98–1.91) | 0.59 (0.12–2.88) | 4.89 (1.86–12.85)‡ | 3.23 (1.59–6.56)‡ | 2.07 (1.5–2.86)‡ | 3.68 (2.88–4.71)‡ |
| 2017 | 2.16 (1.58–2.97)‡ | 1.3 (0.68–2.48) | 2.32 (1.5–3.59)‡ | 1.3 (0.91–1.84) | 1.12 (0.38–3.26) | 2.28 (0.74–6.99) | 2.91 (1.29–6.58)‡ | 1.86 (1.32–2.62)‡ | 4.29 (3.28–5.62)‡ |
| 2018 | 2.34 (1.55–3.51)‡ | 0.97 (0.41–2.29) | 1.77 (0.92–3.41) | 1.24 (0.78–1.97) | 1.18 (0.34–4.14) | 2.75 (0.81–9.28) | 2.36 (0.76–7.34) | 1.64 (1.04–2.56) † | 4.61 (3.21–6.63)‡ |
| 2019 | 2.34 (1.55–3.55)‡ | 1.6 (0.81–3.15) | 2.2 (1.22–3.98)‡ | 1.3 (0.83–2.04) | 2.2 (0.9–5.37) | 5.3 (1.82–15.5)‡ | 1.73 (0.41–7.24) | 2.18 (1.42–3.35)‡ | 4.88 (3.44–6.91)‡ |
A logistic regression model for each of the nine independent drug or drug classes was performed containing collection year, US census division, sex, age, health care specialty, methamphetamine detection status (positive or negative) main effects and collection year by US census division by methamphetamine detection status interaction effects. The drug or drug class detection was modeled as the response variable. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated for each model. OR estimates and 95% Sidak-corrected confidence intervals represent the odds of being positive for the response drug in the methamphetamine-positive population divided by the odds in the methamphetamine-negative population. Higher OR values represent higher copositivity values. OR was calculated for the Total US population and each individual US census division for each year of the study. Other opioids include codeine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, morphine, oxycodone, and oxymorphone.
∗
P < 0.05.
†
P < 0.01.
‡
P < 0.001.