Table 3.
Predictors for COVID-19 hospitalization costs and length of stay—multivariate log-linear regression analysis
| Total hospital cost ($) (N = 190,175) |
Hospital LOS (days) (N = 236,126)a |
Hospital cost/day ($) (N = 190,175) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | LS mean (95% CI) |
LS mean difference (95% CI) |
P-value | LS mean (95% CI) |
LS mean difference (95% CI) |
P-value | LS mean (95% CI) |
LS mean difference (95% CI) |
P-value |
| Sex | |||||||||
| Female |
27,652 (27,200, 28,112) |
Reference |
11 (11, 11) |
Reference |
2600 (2573, 2626) |
Reference | |||
| Male |
30,127 (29,621, 30,640) |
2474 (2280, 2669) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2643 (2616, 2671) |
44 (33, 55) |
< 0.0001 |
| Age groups | |||||||||
| 18–29 years |
26,157 (25,604, 26,721) |
Reference |
10 (9, 10) |
Reference |
2,986 (2946, 3026) |
Reference | |||
| 30–39 years |
27,108 (26,584, 27,643) |
952 (458, 1445) |
0.0002 |
11 (10, 11) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2770 (2736, 2804) |
− 216 (− 249, − 183) |
< 0.0001 |
| 40–49 years |
29,252 (28,726, 29,787) |
3095 (2603, 3588) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
2645 (2615, 2675) |
− 341 (− 372, − 310) |
< 0.0001 |
| 50–59 years |
30,623 (30,108, 31,148) |
4467 (3979, 4955) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 13) |
3 (3, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2616 (2589, 2644) |
− 370 (− 400, − 339) |
< 0.0001 |
| 60–69 years |
31,353 (30,833, 31,881) |
5196 (4686, 5707) |
< 0.0001 |
13 (13, 13) |
3 (3, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2616 (2589, 2643) |
− 370 (− 401, − 339) |
< 0.0001 |
| 70–79 years |
30,524 (29,988, 31,069) |
4367 (3822, 4912) |
< 0.0001 |
13 (12, 13) |
3 (3, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2544 (2516, 2572) |
− 442 (− 475, − 409) |
< 0.0001 |
| 80–89 years |
28,775 (28,249, 29,311) |
2619 (2070, 3168) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
3 (2, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2481 (2453, 2510) |
− 504 (− 539, − 470) |
< 0.0001 |
| ≥ 90 years |
27,535 (26,233, 28,901) |
1378 (57, 2701) |
0.0409 |
12 (12, 13) |
2 (2, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2359 (2289, 2431) |
− 627 (− 709, − 545) |
< 0.0001 |
| Census regions | |||||||||
| Midwest |
26,163 (25,704, 26,630) |
Reference |
11 (11, 11) |
Reference |
2504 (2477, 2532) |
Reference | |||
| Northeast |
33,446 (32,827, 34,077) |
7283 (6918, 7647) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3154 (3117, 3190) |
649 (628, 671) |
< 0.0001 |
| South |
24,799 (24,389, 25,215) |
− 1364 (− 1601, − 1127) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (11, 12) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2252 (2229, 2276) |
− 252 (− 266, − 238) |
< 0.0001 |
| West |
31,981 (31,389, 32,583) |
5817 (5434, 6201) |
< 0.0001 |
13 (13, 13) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
2654 (2623, 2685) |
150 (128, 171) |
< 0.0001 |
| Urban | |||||||||
| Rural |
27,817 (27,313, 28,331) |
Reference |
11 (11, 12) |
Reference |
2566 (2537, 2595) |
Reference | |||
| Urban |
29,948 (29,469, 30,435) |
2131 (1816, 2446) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
0 (0, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2678 (2651, 2705) |
112 (94, 129) |
< 0.0001 |
| Race | |||||||||
| Asian |
30,942 (30,140, 31,765) |
Reference |
12 (12, 12) |
Reference |
2741 (2697, 2786) |
Reference | |||
| Black |
28,070 (27,584, 28,564) |
− 2872 (− 3531, − 2214) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (11, 12) |
− 1 (− 1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
2570 (2542, 2598) |
− 171 (− 208, − 135) |
< 0.0001 |
| Caucasian |
28,148 (27,716, 28,587) |
− 2794 (− 3433, − 2156) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (11, 12) |
− 1 (− 1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
2598 (2574, 2623) |
− 143 (− 179, − 107) |
< 0.0001 |
| Other |
28,387 (27,900, 28,883) |
− 2555 (− 3243, − 1868) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
0 (− 1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
2579 (2551, 2606) |
− 163 (− 201, − 125) |
< 0.0001 |
| Ethnicity | |||||||||
| Hispanic |
31,367 (30,791, 31,953) |
Reference |
12 (12, 12) |
Reference |
2719 (2688, 2750) |
Reference | |||
| Not Hispanic |
28,083 (27,631, 28,542) |
− 3284 (− 35,80, − 29,88) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (11, 12) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2571 (2546, 2597) |
− 148 (− 164, − 131) |
< 0.0001 |
| Unknown |
27,296 (26,819, 27,782) |
− 4070 (− 4423, − 3718) |
< 0.0001 |
11 (11, 11) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2,576 (2548, 2604) |
− 143 (− 163, − 123) |
< 0.0001 |
| Payor | |||||||||
| Commercial |
28,123 (27,631, 28,624) |
Reference |
11 (11, 12) |
Reference |
2599 (2571, 2628) |
Reference | |||
| Medicaid |
30,344 (29,798, 30,900) |
2221 (1889, 2553) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2690 (2660, 2720) |
91 (72, 109) |
< 0.0001 |
| Medicare |
28,339 (27,868, 28,819) |
216 (− 84, 517) |
0.1584 |
12 (11, 12) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.0175 |
2594 (2567, 2621) |
− 5 (− 23, 12) |
0.5394 |
| Other |
28,696 (28,138, 29,266) |
573 (208, 938) |
0.0021 |
12 (12, 12) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.0002 |
2603 (2571, 2634) |
3 (− 18, 24) |
0.7676 |
| Comorbidities | |||||||||
|
Asthma (without) |
28,441 (27,991, 28,898) |
Reference |
12 (11, 12) |
Reference |
2604 (2578, 2630) |
Reference | |||
|
Asthma (with) |
29,291 (28,754, 29,838) |
850 (530, 1169) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
0.0017 |
2639 (2609, 2669) |
35 (17, 53) |
0.0001 | |
|
Autoimmune diseases (without) |
28,143 (27,737, 28,554) |
Reference |
11 (11, 12) |
Reference |
2607 (2584, 2630) |
Reference | |||
|
Autoimmune diseases (with) |
29,601 (28,972, 30,244) |
1458 (980, 1937) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
0 (0, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2635 (2601, 2671) |
29 (2, 55) |
0.0380 |
|
COPD (without) |
28,946 (28,484, 29,416) |
Reference |
12 (12, 12) |
Reference |
2605 (2579, 2631) |
Reference | |||
|
COPD (with) |
28,779 (28,266, 29,302) |
− 167 (− 450, 116) |
0.2468 |
12 (11, 12) |
< 0.0001 |
2637 (2608, 2667) |
32 (16, 48) |
< 0.0001 | |
|
Hypertension (without) |
28,410 (27,921, 28,907) |
Reference |
12 (11, 12) |
Reference |
2614 (2586, 2642) |
Reference | |||
|
Hypertension (with) |
29,323 (28,844, 29,810) |
913 (666, 1161) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
< 0.0001 |
2628 (2602, 2655) |
14 (0, 28) |
0.0452 | |
|
Diabetes (without) |
27,932 (27,471, 28,401) |
Reference |
11 (11, 12) |
Reference |
2604 (2577, 2631) |
Reference | |||
|
Diabetes (with) |
29,824 (29,326, 30,331) |
1892 (1684, 2100) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
1 (0, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2639 (2612, 2667) |
35 (24, 47) |
< 0.0001 |
|
Obesity (without) |
27,802 (27,345, 28,268) |
Reference |
11 (11, 11) |
Reference |
2632 (2605, 2659) |
Reference | |||
|
Obesity (with) |
29,964 (29,459, 30,477) |
2161 (1943, 2379) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2610 (2583, 2638) |
− 22 (− 34, − 9) |
0.0005 |
| Levels of care | |||||||||
| ACTT OS 3/4 |
16,442 (16,169, 16,719) |
Reference |
8 (7, 8) |
Reference |
2220 (2197, 2244) |
Reference | |||
| ACTT OS 5 |
19,706 (19,369, 20,048) |
3264 (3121, 3407) |
< 0.0001 |
10 (9, 10) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
2117 (2094, 2140) |
− 103 (− 114, − 93) |
< 0.0001 |
| ACTT OS 6 |
35,139 (34,441, 35,851) |
18,698 (18,348, 19,048) |
< 0.0001 |
13 (13, 14) |
6 (6, 6) |
< 0.0001 |
2708 (2675, 2742) |
488 (467, 509) |
< 0.0001 |
| ACTT OS 7 |
60,958 (59,815, 62,123) |
44,517 (44,019, 45,017) |
< 0.0001 |
19 (19, 20) |
12 (12, 12) |
< 0.0001 |
3709 (3665, 3753) |
1488 (1464, 1513) |
< 0.0001 |
| Teaching status | |||||||||
| Academic |
28,539 (28,058, 29,029) |
Reference |
12 (11, 12) |
Reference |
2629 (2601, 2656) |
Reference | |||
| Community |
29,190 (28,708, 29,680) |
651 (421, 881) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
< 0.0001 |
2614 (2587, 2641) |
− 15 (− 28, − 2) |
0.0260 | |
| Hospital size | |||||||||
| 0–99 beds |
29,997 (29,367, 30,639) |
Reference |
11 (10, 11) |
Reference |
3068 (3028, 3109) |
Reference | |||
| 100–299 beds |
27,346 (26,889, 27,810) |
− 2651 (− 3104, − 2198) |
< 0.0001 |
11 (11, 12) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2521 (2495, 2548) |
− 547 (− 574, − 520) |
< 0.0001 |
| 300–499 beds |
28,123 (27,640, 28,615) |
− 1873 (− 2352, − 1395) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
2430 (2404, 2456) |
− 638 (− 666, − 610) |
< 0.0001 |
| 500 + beds |
30,083 (29,569, 30,607) |
87 (− 422, 596) |
0.7377 |
13 (13, 13) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
2511 (2485, 2538) |
− 557 (− 586, − 528) |
< 0.0001 |
| Discharge status | |||||||||
| Home |
18,939 (18,647, 19,235) |
Reference |
8 (8, 8) |
Reference |
2402 (2379, 2425) |
Reference | |||
| Dead |
25,057 (24,627, 25,494) |
6118 (5,836, 6400) |
< 0.0001 |
9 (9, 9) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2938 (2906, 2970) |
536 (514, 558) |
< 0.0001 |
| Hospice |
32,552 (31,351, 33,798) |
13,613 (12,711, 14,520) |
< 0.0001 |
13 (13, 14) |
5 (5, 6) |
< 0.0001 |
2611 (2551, 2672) |
209 (154, 264) |
< 0.0001 |
| Inpatient Rehabilitation Facility |
27,571 (26,991, 28,165) |
8633 (8248, 9019) |
< 0.0001 |
11 (11, 11) |
3 (3, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2671 (2636, 2706) |
269 (242, 295) |
< 0.0001 |
| Long− term Hospital Care |
43,049 (41,631, 44,514) |
24,110 (23,153, 25,073) |
< 0.0001 |
18 (17, 18) |
9 (9, 10) |
< 0.0001 |
2628 (2574, 2683) |
226 (178, 274) |
< 0.0001 |
| Others |
27,987 (27,518, 28,465) |
9049 (8,813, 9285) |
< 0.0001 |
11 (11, 11) |
3 (3, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2651 (2623, 2679) |
249 (233, 265) |
< 0.0001 |
| Skilled Nursing Facility |
32,520 (31,943, 33,107) |
13,581 (13,283, 13,879) |
< 0.0001 |
14 (14, 14) |
6 (6, 6) |
< 0.0001 |
2480 (2453, 2508) |
79 (61, 96) |
< 0.0001 |
| Admission month | |||||||||
| April |
33,495 (32,914, 34,087) |
Reference |
13 (13, 13) |
Reference |
2638 (2610, 2667) |
Reference | |||
| May |
34,549 (33,912, 35,199) |
1054 (613, 1496) |
< 0.0001 |
13 (13, 13) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.0887 |
2737 (2706, 2769) |
99 (77, 120) |
< 0.0001 |
| June |
31,804 (31,214, 32,406) |
− 1691 (− 2135, − 1247) |
< 0.0001 |
13 (13, 13) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.7278 |
2576 (2546, 2606) |
− 62 (− 84, − 40) |
< 0.0001 |
| July |
29,697 (29,181, 30,222) |
− 3799 (− 4175, − 3422) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 13) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2519 (2492, 2547) |
− 119 (− 139, − 100) |
< 0.0001 |
| August |
30,511 (29,958, 31,074) |
− 2984 (− 3405, − 2564) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2696 (2666, 2727) |
58 (36, 80) |
< 0.0001 |
| September |
30,480 (29,887, 31,084) |
− 3016 (− 3493, − 2539) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 12) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2781 (2747, 2815) |
142 (117, 167) |
< 0.0001 |
| October |
28,271 (27,741, 28,811) |
− 5224 (− 5652, − 4797) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (11, 12) |
− 2 (− 2, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
2625 (2594, 2656) |
− 14 (− 37, 9) |
0.2356 |
| November |
24,783 (24,315, 25,260) |
− 8713 (− 9117, − 8309) |
< 0.0001 |
10 (10, 11) |
− 3 (− 3, − 3) |
< 0.0001 |
2524 (2495, 2554) |
− 114 (− 136, − 92) |
< 0.0001 |
| December |
19,520 (18,824, 20,241) |
− 13,976 (− 14,876, − 13,080) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 9) |
− 5 (− 5, − 5) |
< 0.0001 |
2510 (2454, 2567) |
− 128 (-− 182, − 74) |
< 0.0001 |
aNs are for patients with cost data and above minimum cost threshold trim. ACTT OS were estimated using the oxygen procedures received by patients during the hospitalization. ACTT OS 3/4, no supplemental oxygen; ACTT OS 5, supplemental oxygen; ACTT OS 6, non-invasive ventilation or high-flow oxygen; ACTT OS 7, ECMO using invasive mechanical ventilation. COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; ECMO, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; LOS, length of stay; LS, least square; ACTT OS, Adaptive COVID-19 Treatment Trial Ordinal Scale