Table 4.
Predictors for COVID-19 ICU costs and length of stay—multivariate log-linear regression analysis
| Total ICU Cost ($) (N = 67,256) |
ICU LOS (Days) (N = 84,779)a |
ICU Cost/Day ($) (N = 67,256) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | LS mean (95% CI) |
LS mean difference (95% CI) |
P-value | LS
mean (95% CI) |
LS mean difference (95% CI) |
P-value | LS mean (95% CI) |
LS mean difference (95% CI) |
P-value |
| Sex | |||||||||
| Female |
24,014 (23,304, 24,745) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
3913 (3835, 3991) |
Reference | |||
| Male |
25,911 (25,129, 26,718) |
1897 (1590, 2205) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (0, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3992 (3912, 4074) |
79 (47, 112) |
< 0.0001 |
| Age groups | |||||||||
| 18–29 years |
23,554 (22,563, 24,589) |
Reference |
6 (6, 6) |
Reference |
4665 (4533, 4800) |
Reference | |||
| 30–39 years |
24,625 (23,736, 25,547) |
1070 (86, 2056) |
0.0331 |
7 (7, 7) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
4232 (4129, 4336) |
− 433 (− 554, − 312) |
< 0.0001 |
| 40–49 years |
25,169 (24,360, 26,005) |
1615 (687, 2543) |
0.0006 |
7 (7, 7) |
1 (1, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
4089 (4001, 4179) |
− 576 (− 687, − 464) |
< 0.0001 |
| 50–59 years |
27,274 (26,462, 28,110) |
3720 (2785, 4656) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 8) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
4027 (3947, 4108) |
− 638 (− 745, − 531) |
< 0.0001 |
| 60–69 years |
27,721 (26,910, 28,555) |
4167 (3205, 5129) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 8) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
3953 (3876, 4031) |
− 712 (− 820, − 604) |
< 0.0001 |
| 70–79 years |
26,981 (26,145, 27,844) |
3427 (2426, 4429) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 8) |
2 (2, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
3821 (3742, 3902) |
− 844 (− 956, − 731) |
< 0.0001 |
| 80–89 years |
23,661 (22,892, 24,456) |
107 (− 867, 1,081) |
0.8292 |
7 (7, 8) |
1 (1, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
3606 (3527, 3686) |
− 1,059 (− 1173, − 945) |
< 0.0001 |
| ≥ 90 years |
21,275 (19,335, 23,409) |
− 2279 (− 4505, − 59) |
0.0442 |
7 (7, 8) |
1 (1, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
3363 (3155, 3584) |
− 1,302 (− 1568, − 1037) |
< 0.0001 |
| Census regions | |||||||||
| Midwest |
22,931 (22,207, 23,679) |
Reference |
7 (7, 8) |
Reference |
3438 (3366, 3512) |
Reference | |||
| Northeast |
27,038 (26,108, 28,002) |
4107 (3506, 4709) |
< 0.0001 |
6 (6, 7) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
5575 (5446, 5707) |
2,136 (2,062, 2,210) |
< 0.0001 |
| South |
22,474 (21,802, 23,166) |
− 458 (− 836, − 79) |
0.0177 |
7 (7, 7) |
0 (0, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3499 (3429, 3571) |
61 (23, 99) |
0.0018 |
| West |
27,786 (26,874, 28,729) |
4855 (4261, 5450) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 8) |
1 (0, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3637 (3558, 3718) |
199 (146, 252) |
< 0.0001 |
| Urban | |||||||||
| Rural |
23,522 (22,756, 24,313) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
3774 (3692, 3858) |
Reference | |||
| Urban |
26,453 (25,690, 27,239) |
2932 (2450, 3413) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (0, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
4138 (4059, 4220) |
364 (313, 415) |
< 0.0001 |
| Race | |||||||||
| Asian |
27,620 (26,302, 29,004) |
Reference |
8 (7, 8) |
Reference |
4067 (3937, 4201) |
Reference | |||
| Black |
23,101 (22,379, 23,847) |
− 4519 (− 5584, − 3455) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
− 1 (− 1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3799 (3720, 3880) |
− 268 (− 378, − 158) |
< 0.0001 |
| Caucasian |
23,459 (22,817, 24,120) |
− 4161 (− 5200, − 3124) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
0 (− 1, 0) |
0.0006 |
3760 (3692, 3831) |
− 307 (− 412, − 201) |
< 0.0001 |
| Other |
25,866 (25,063, 26,695) |
− 1754 (− 2921, − 587) |
0.0032 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (− 1, 0) |
0.0885 |
4198 (4111, 4287) |
131 (11, 251) |
0.0318 |
| Ethnicity | |||||||||
| Hispanic |
27,080 (26,182, 28,009) |
Reference |
8 (8, 8) |
Reference |
3933 (3846, 4022) |
Reference | |||
| Not Hispanic |
23,772 (23,081, 24,484) |
− 3308 (− 3764, − 2853) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (6, 7) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
4003 (3925, 4082) |
70 (23, 117) |
0.0036 |
| Unknown |
24,110 (23,349, 24,897) |
− 2970 (− 3537, − 2403) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (− 1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3921 (3839, 4005) |
− 12 (− 68, 45) |
0.6868 |
| Payor | |||||||||
| Commercial |
25,219 (24,422, 26,041) |
Reference |
7 (7, 8) |
Reference |
3894 (3812, 3978) |
Reference | |||
| Medicaid |
26,376 (25,520, 27,261) |
1158 (614, 1,701) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (7, 8) |
0 (0, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
4055 (3967, 4144) |
161 (105, 216) |
< 0.0001 |
| Medicare |
23,161 (22,468, 23,875) |
−2058 (-−2,516, -1600) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
-1 (-1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3849 (3772, 3927) |
-45 (-94, 4) |
0.0718 |
| Other |
25,131 (24,249, 26,045) |
-− 88 (−686, 511) |
0.7740 |
7 (7, 7) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.0416 |
4014 (3920, 4111) |
120 (58, 183) |
0.0002 |
| Comorbidities | |||||||||
|
Asthma (without) |
24,460 (23,764, 25,176) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
3969 (3894, 4046) |
Reference | |||
|
Asthma (with) |
25,439 (24,594, 26,313) |
979 (471, 1488) |
0.0002 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (0, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3935 (3848, 4024) |
− 34 (− 88, 19) |
0.2108 |
|
Autoimmune diseases (without) |
24,583 (23,939, 25,244) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
3964 (3895, 4035) |
Reference | |||
|
Autoimmune diseases (with) |
25,312 (24,351, 26,310) |
729 (− 8, 1466) |
0.0524 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.0858 |
3940 (3840, 4043) |
− 24 (− 102, 54) |
0.5429 |
|
COPD (without) |
25,493 (24,756, 26,251) |
Reference |
7 (7, 8) |
Reference |
3973 (3897, 4051) |
Reference | |||
|
COPD (with) |
24,408 (23,631, 25,211) |
− 1084 (− 1503, − 666) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
0 (0, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3931 (3848, 4017) |
− 42 (− 86, 2) |
0.0631 |
|
Hypertension (without) |
24,814 (24,044, 25,609) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
3954 (3872, 4038) |
Reference | |||
|
Hypertension (with) |
25,076 (24,338, 25,837) |
262 (− 126, 651) |
0.1852 |
7 (7, 7) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.0669 |
3950 (3872, 4030) |
− 4 (− 45, 38) |
0.8560 |
|
Diabetes (without) |
24,531 (23,799, 25,284) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
3962 (3883, 4042) |
Reference | |||
|
Diabetes (with) |
25,366 (24,604, 26,151) |
835 (518, 1152) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (0, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3942 (3863, 4023) |
− 20 (− 53, 14) |
0.2499 |
|
Obesity (without) |
23,725 (23,021, 24,451) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
4020 (3941, 4102) |
Reference | |||
|
Obesity (with) |
26,227 (25,432, 27,046) |
2502 (2169, 2835) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (7, 8) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3885 (3806, 3965) |
− 135 (− 170, − 100) |
< 0.0001 |
| Levels of care | |||||||||
| ACTT OS 3/4 |
14,119 (13,686, 14,567) |
Reference |
4 (4, 5) |
Reference |
3568 (3494, 3643) |
Reference | |||
| ACTT OS 5 |
17,967 (17,408, 18,544) |
3847 (3591, 4104) |
< 0.0001 |
6 (6, 6) |
2 (1, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
3345 (3275, 3416) |
− 223 (− 260, − 186) |
< 0.0001 |
| ACTT OS 6 |
26,868 (25,964, 27,804) |
12,749 (12,305, 13,194) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
3 (3, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
4142 (4048, 4237) |
574 (518, 630) |
< 0.0001 |
| ACTT OS 7 |
56,804 (55,039, 58,625) |
42,685 (42,032, 43,341) |
< 0.0001 |
14 (13, 14) |
9 (9, 9) |
< 0.0001 |
4936 (4834, 5040) |
1368 (1316, 1421) |
< 0.0001 |
| Teaching status | |||||||||
| Academic |
25,390 (24,618, 26,187) |
Reference |
7 (7, 7) |
Reference |
4106 (4023, 4191) |
Reference | |||
| Community |
24,507 (23,778, 25,257) |
− 883 (− 1235, − 532) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.0006 |
3804 (3728, 3881) |
− 302 (− 339, − 265) |
< 0.0001 |
| Hospital size | |||||||||
| 0–99 beds |
29,747 (28,569, 30,973) |
Reference |
7 (6, 7) |
Reference |
5039 (4906, 5176) |
Reference | |||
| 100–299 beds |
23,956 (23,237, 24,697) |
− 5791 (− 6627, − 4957) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
1 (0, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3809 (3733, 3887) |
− 1230 (− 1322, − 1138) |
< 0.0001 |
| 300–499 beds |
22,906 (22,203, 23,632) |
− 6841 (− 7689, − 5995) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3560 (3486, 3634) |
− 1479 (− 1572, − 1387) |
< 0.0001 |
| 500 + beds |
23,719 (22,995, 24,465) |
− 6028 (− 6910, − 5149) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 8) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3570 (3497, 3645) |
− 1469 (− 1563, − 1374) |
< 0.0001 |
| Discharge status | |||||||||
| Home |
17,190 (16,702, 17,692) |
Reference |
5 (5, 5) |
Reference |
3610 (3541, 3680) |
Reference | |||
| Dead |
23,639 (22,932, 24,367) |
6449 (6045, 6854) |
< 0.0001 |
6 (6, 6) |
1 (1, 1) |
< 0.0001 |
4371 (4283, 4461) |
762 (708, 815) |
< 0.0001 |
| Hospice |
25,840 (24,156, 27,642) |
8650 (7303, 10,006) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 8) |
2 (2, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
4024 (3848, 4209) |
414 (255, 574) |
< 0.0001 |
| Inpatient Rehabilitation Facility |
24,041 (23,161, 24,955) |
6851 (6270, 7435) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
2 (1, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
4185 (4083, 4289) |
575 (501, 649) |
< 0.0001 |
| Long-term Hospital Care |
38,707 (36,927, 40,573) |
21,517 (20,398, 22,645) |
< 0.0001 |
12 (12, 13) |
7 (7, 7) |
< 0.0001 |
3693 (3579, 3810) |
83 (− 15, 180) |
0.0955 |
| Others |
24,082 (23,343, 24,844) |
6892 (6499, 7285) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
2 (1, 2) |
< 0.0001 |
4018 (3935, 4102) |
408 (359, 456) |
< 0.0001 |
| Skilled Nursing Facility |
25,539 (24,709, 26,398) |
8349 (7884, 8816) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 8) |
3 (2, 3) |
< 0.0001 |
3820 (3737, 3905) |
210 (156, 264) |
< 0.0001 |
| Admission month | |||||||||
| April |
27,736 (26,876, 28,624) |
Reference |
8 (8, 8) |
Reference |
3945 (3863, 4029) |
Reference | |||
| May |
29,746 (28,782, 30,743) |
2010 (1342, 2679) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (8, 9) |
0 (0, 1) |
0.0004 |
4040 (3952, 4129) |
94 (32, 156) |
0.0029 |
| June |
27,088 (26,206, 27,999) |
− 648 (− 1297, 0) |
0.0500 |
8 (8, 8) |
0 (0, 0) |
0.1825 |
3883 (3798, 3969) |
− 62 (− 124, 0) |
0.0489 |
| July |
25,275 (24,497, 26,077) |
− 2461 (− 3019, − 1904) |
< 0.0001 |
8 (7, 8) |
0 (− 1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
3738 (3661, 3817) |
− 207 (− 261, − 153) |
< 0.0001 |
| August |
26,921 (26,049, 27,822) |
− 815 (− 1463, − 168) |
0.0136 |
8 (7, 8) |
− 1 (− 1, 0) |
< 0.0001 |
4122 (4033, 4214) |
177 (113, 241) |
< 0.0001 |
| September |
26,891 (25,951, 27,865) |
− 845 (− 1584, − 107) |
0.0248 |
7 (7, 8) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
4264 (4165, 4366) |
319 (245, 393) |
< 0.0001 |
| October |
25,000 (24,158, 25,871) |
− 2736 (− 3405, − 2068) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (7, 7) |
− 1 (− 1, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3945 (3856, 4036) |
0 (− 67, 67) |
0.9916 |
| November |
21,754 (21,003, 22,531) |
− 5983 (− 6631, − 5335) |
< 0.0001 |
7 (6, 7) |
− 2 (− 2, − 1) |
< 0.0001 |
3710 (3625, 3797) |
− 235 (− 302, − 169) |
< 0.0001 |
| December |
16,814 (15,589, 18,137) |
− 10,922 (− 12,531, − 9326) |
< 0.0001 |
5 (5, 5) |
− 3 (− 3, − 3) |
< 0.0001 |
3952 (3758, 4156) |
6 (− 183, 196) |
0.9465 |