Table 1.

Research summary of the various iterations of virtual learning environments (VLE)

Author(s), Year, Country	Aim (A), Research Design (RD), and Intervention Program (IP), if any	Participant Profile (number of students; age; control (CG) and intervention groups (IG), if applicable)	Data Source(s) (DS) and Timeline of Data Collection (TDC), if applicable	Statistical Significance (if reported or applicable),  Findings, and Conclusions
Archambault et al., 2013, U.S.A	A: To examine how truancy laws can and do apply to online students, and (2) to determine the responsibility of online schools to enforce state attendance laws. RD: Case-study design	Policies at Minnesota Virtual High School (MVHS) that educates approximately 1350 students, grades 6–12; Dean of Students at MVHS	DS: Minnesota Attendance and Truancy Statutes; Chicago Country Truancy Policy; Structured interview transcript	(1) Indeed, online schools are public schools, and its students are subject to state attendance and truancy laws. (2) MVHS uses a competency-based calculation to determine attendance; work completion and skill progress are calculated as percentages that correspond to the number of school days per week. Virtual schools need to take an active role in overseeing students’ progress, which may require additional staff resources.
Baker et al., 2019, U.S.A	A: To test the efficacy of a scheduling intervention in an online post-secondary course. RD: Experimental IP: Scheduling the watching of the lecture	N = 145 Undergraduate students mean age = 20 yrs (SD = 1.2)	DS: Pre-intervention survey; Weekly quiz scores; Clickstream data from VLE TDC: 2 weeks of a 6-week course	This intervention is most helpful for students who believe that their time management skills are poor, regardless of their actual skills. Effects diminish over time, however.
Barbour & LaBonte, 2019, Canada	A: (1) To examine the existing system of e-learning in Ontario, (2) to investigate the 2019 mandatory e-learning proposal, and (3) to investigate lack of research to support the proposal. RD: Literature Review	87 documents	DS: the findings of 87 articles consisting of institutional research studies, governmental policies, and institutional surveys	(1) Centralized vs. decentralized delivery is insufficient; both offer outcomes that are similar to F2F contexts. (2) No evidence to show that e-learning creates a negative impact on graduation rates. (3) Connection between increases of e-learning class size and negative impact on student achievement outcomes.
Blayone et al., 2018, Georgia & Ukraine	A: To determine the state of digital readiness of Georgian and Ukrainian students for online learning over 4 variables: technical actions, communication, informational, and computational. RD: Quasi-experimental	N = 279 Georgian students, n = 150; Ukrainian students, n = 129 Age range of 17–30	DS: Survey using the Digital Competency Profiler (DCP) survey	In both cohorts, (i) mobile device usage signified the highest readiness, chiefly with word-processing; (ii) avid use of mobile devices for social media did not translate to high readiness for e-learning communication; (iii) low readiness for searching for research texts; (iv) up to 96% have low readiness if using mobile devices for computation. Technology readiness is needed but is not a sufficient condition for building successful e-learning experiences.
Cairns et al., 2020, U.S.A	A: To provide academic insight into the variety of experiences and technological platforms used during crisis remote learning. RD: Qualitative, exploratory	N = 28 Undergraduate students, Years 1–4	DS: Interviews	Technology facilitates connections, new modes of interaction, and meaningful relationship building. There is a hierarchy in connection preferences, with in-person first, then video, then talk, then text and in those modalities, synchronous connection is preferred over asynchronous. As well, F2F or video connection is deemed more meaningful for its ability to show facial expressions.
Cavanaugh et al., 2004, U.S.A	A: (1) To collect data and draw conclusions on student learning in online programs and how it compares to learning in classroom-based programs, and (2) to identify the specific factors that influence student learning. RD: Meta-analysis	Based on 116 effect sizes from 14 web-delivered, grades 3–12 distance education programs: combined sample size of N = 7561 students	DS: The findings of 14 studies	The mean effect size across all outcomes (r = -0.028) indicates no significant difference in performance of online vs. F2F class. The unweighted effect sizes (r = -1.158 to 0.597, SD = 0.157) indicate that some applications of distance education appeared to be much better than F2F and others were much worse. Distance education can have the same effect on measures of student academic achievement when compared to traditional instruction. They can be seen as ‘equivalent’.
Crea & Sparnon, 2017, Kenya and Jordan	A: (1) To review the implementation of an online program that provided tertiary education to refugees and, (2) to explore the benefits and drawbacks of the program. RD: Qualitative IP: Diploma Program created for students in refugee camps consisting of 15, 8-week courses over 3 years. On-site staff would care for the physical, legal, and social-emotional needs of students, while international faculty would instruct courses online off-site	N = 79 Refugee camp staff (‘on-site’), n = 23; international faculty (‘off-site’), n = 56	DS: surveys TDC: Every 8 weeks, feedback was solicited from students through staff/faculty; August 2013-March 2014	Faculty noted the importance of mentors working with students and the ability to communicate and collaborate with on-site members. Students report improved functioning in their communities and being better able to attain robust employment because of the program. Students also reported renewed sense of hope in their future due to online education. Despite fluidity of online option, the gender barrier of accessing education was too great to overcome for many women.
Davies, 2014, United Kingdom	A: To investigate the efficacy of using the iPad to facilitate student interaction, group cohesion, and the sharing of student material. RD: Quasi-experimental IP: To use an iPad to keep track of tutorial lessons and discussions	N = 80 Undergraduate students, Year 3 CG: n = 56, F2F; not measured IG: n = 24	DS: Descriptive feedback, surveys TDC: Midpoint and cessation of intervention	Results indicated that 85% of participants reported a positive outcome of having the opportunity to revisit material online after instructional sessions. Mobile computing platforms may help students to engage more fully with learning activities and materials, and increase student confidence with peer presentation and feedback.
Domina et al., 2021, U.S.A	A: To investigate predictors of elementary school student engagement during the initial period of the COVID-19 pandemic remote learning. RD: Causal comparative method	N = 9741 Parents and guardians (providing data on approximately 42% of all elementary students)	DS: Survey TDC: Surveys administered between May 26 and July 1, 2020	Significantly, for households with less than 1 device per child score lower on measures of engagement (SD = 0.13 to 0.32); students with access to high-speed internet score higher (SD = 0.32) than students without on the measure of success in completing assignments. Each additional socio-emotional learning opportunity is associated with a SD = 0.1 improvement in student enjoyment of remote learning (p < 0.001) and in their ability to complete and submit online work (p < 0.001) as well as the frequency with which students log on to remote instruction (p < 0.01). Students whose families remained socially connected to other students’ families were more likely to be engaged. Those with no instances of connection reported less enjoyment (p = 0.05) and less success completing the school year (p = 0.01). Multiple forms of remote instruction helped engagement (p < 0.001); these multiple modes were associated with greater student enjoyment (p < 0.001) and more frequent login (p < 0.001).
Dommett et al., 2019, U.S.A	A: (1) To investigate perceptions of video-captured lectures, and (2) their usefulness for learning. RD: Qualitative analysis	N = 25 Faculty, n = 8; students, n = 17	DS: Focus group transcripts	Students reported that captured video of class lectures were efficient for revision, low cost, an adequate substitute when attendance not possible, helpful for ELLs, and valued for narratives that elaborate on lecture slides. Of note, knowing the recordings are available had a positive impact on feelings of well-being and reduced anxiety in students with disabilities. Faculty felt that the recordings should be used minimally lest they become reductive tool. They also reported the worry that recordings reinforce students’ perception of the lecture serving only as information transfer or stand-alone events rather than part of a whole program.
Driscoll et al., 2012, U.S.A	A: To investigate whether student performance and satisfaction intrinsically differ across online and F2F classroom settings, independent of student characteristics. RD: Quasi-experimental IP: An online course focused on interaction, clear organization, and structure with a focus on content over delivery method will be offered to the IG, and a traditional F2F course offered to the CG	N = 368 Undergraduate students, Year 1 CG: n = 198 IG: n = 170	DS: Surveys (Cronbach’s α = 0.865); Academic achievement scores TDC: Surveys administered pre- and post-intervention, academic scores recorded at midpoint (midterm exam) and a final project	While mean comparisons of the dependent variables show that F2F students performed better on both assessments, this result is a potential selection effect with GPA as a predictor variable. There is no significant difference between satisfaction among the two groups. Results support that online education can be equally effective when an online course is designed using appropriate pedagogy. Students who enjoy working with others and view interaction with their instructor as important to learning tended to be more satisfied with the course, independent of the type of classroom they are in.
Du et al., 2019, U.S.A	A: To examine six factors related to students’ self-efficacy beliefs in online groupwork: online groupwork interest, technology and media use, willingness to handle online groupwork challenge, leadership, trust relationship and, online groupwork self-efficacy. RD: Quantitative survey	N = 204 Graduate students; 70% are < 30 years Participants split into 61 groups over 3 years: average of 3.35 participants per group	DS: Survey TDC: Survey administered at end of semester; over Fall 2009 – Spring 2012	Online groupwork self-efficacy is significantly positively correlated with age, gender, and experience with online courses. Students’ willingness to handle challenge is positively related to online groupwork self-efficacy (p < 0.01); only this willingness can predict online group self-efficacy. The more students trust and support each other within the group, the more efficacious they are doing groupwork (p < 0.01). The more positive perceptions of the leadership in the group, the more efficacious they are doing online groupwork (p < 0.05).
Engelbertink et al., 2020, The Netherlands	A: (1) To examine the needs of students and teachers that could achieve an optimal blend between F2F and online elements of a course, and (2) to discover if persuasive technology is suitable for BLMs. RD: Qualitative participatory design approach	N = 17 Teachers, n = 4; ICT specialist, n = 3; educational experts, n = 2; social workers, n = 3; and students, n = 5 (mean age = 19 yrs)	DS: Meeting minutes; Surveys; Descriptive feedback TDC: 6 meetings (2 h each over 6 months)	(1) Both teacher and student could motivate students to do their homework F2F; persuasive technology can ensure this F2F-based motivation is maintained during asynchronous time. (2) Persuasive technology is suitable for a BLM when using elements of primary task, dialogue, and social support. Of note is the need to regulate dialogue supports such as rewards and praise so that they stimulate learning, rather than becoming the learning’s extrinsic value.
Gibson & Smith, 2018, United Kingdom	A: (1) to present skills needed by students to navigate their information journey through online learning, and (2) discuss how educators can support students’ acquisition and development of these skills. RD: Systematic review	30 Studies	DS: The findings and conclusions of 30 studies	Educators must equip learners with autonomy to navigate searches for information. For primary learners, focus must be on fostering enquiry-minded researchers. For secondary students, lessons in critical reading, writing, and critiques of sources are essential. These lessons must be precise, concise, and targeted. For learners in higher education, institutions can support their learning by refining obtuse LMSs and use new and innovative tools instead.
Gillis & Krull, 2020, U.S.A	A: (1) To analyze student’s perceptions of the emergency transition to online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic, (2) to evaluate the usefulness of various online learning strategies, and (3) analyze barriers encountered. RD: Qualitative	N = 66 Undergraduate students, Year 1 IG: (1) n = 40; (2) n = 26	DS: Surveys with open-ended questions TDC: At onset of emergency learning; 2 weeks into emergency learning; 1 week after course completion	(1) Live Zoom discussions structured similarly as F2F classes were rated highly with 70% of students rating them with ‘high effectiveness’ whereas only 41% found them effective in other courses. Regarding small group video, 83% rated it as ‘very accessible’ (vs. 70% in other courses) and 76% rated it as ‘effective’ (vs. 33% for other courses). (2) The study underlines the importance of gathering feedback from students at multiple points to ensure the identification of barriers to accessibility and effectiveness. While Zoom rated highly for effectiveness, the qualities of enjoyment and accessibility rated on par with other asynchronous interventions. (3) Results show high levels of anxiety, distraction, and lack of motivation for all students, but are particular evident in students who come from underserved backgrounds.
Ho et al., 2016, Vietnam	A: To examine the effectiveness of a BLM for teacher education students learning the ‘hands-on-approach’ method. RD: Quasi-experimental; mixed methods (qualitative & quantitative) IP: BLM where students engage in online, self-paced learning and collaboration on a product after an introductory F2F lesson	N = 177 Undergraduate students CG: n = 60, F2F IG: n = 117, BLM	DS: Assignment achievement scores; Test scores; Reflective questionnaire TDC: Before and after intervention	Students in the IG showed a significantly higher level of knowledge and overall satisfaction (p =  < 0.05) as well as a statistically significant difference in achievement mean scores with the BLM students scoring higher (p =  < 0.05). However, feelings of self-efficacy with the ‘hands-on-approach’ were not significantly different between the CG and the IG though learners in the CG group felt they could improve their self-efficacy due to the practical nature of the course delivered F2F. Effective BLMs are successful due to the following factors: access, flexibility, cost effective, improving interaction, formation of network, and involving school leaders.
Huang et al., 2011, Taiwan	A: To investigate whether a BLM with weblog and RSS technology can mitigate the social barriers found in classroom settings, issues of time lag, and cognitive overload. RD: Quasi-experimental comparison group IP: To complete course objectives using weblogs with jigsaw cooperative learning activities with RSS feeds	N = 115 Undergraduate students, Year 2 CG: n = 58, F2F IG: n = 57, online	DS: Questionnaires TDC: Questionnaires administered to all students at beginning of course; second questionnaire administered to only the IG	The IG had more positive impression of the jigsaw activity (t(1113) = 2.62, p < 0.01), felt less time pressure (t(1113) = 4.95, p < 0.01), and felt less peer pressure (t(1113) = 2.58, p < 0.05). Of the IG, 85% reported that the RSS with keyword search functions decreased cognitive overload and the time lag of information delivery while 60% indicated that the tag function was of neutral quality. Students must be taught to use these features of the IP to see maximal benefits.
Huang et al., 2019, U.S.A	A: To examine whether 3DVR technology contexts satisfies or obstructs psychological need and whether it fosters or undermines sustained engagement and behaviour. RD: Experimental IP: Students participate in a 3DVR Second Life simulation. A virtual tourism destination was developed with the learning objective to explore and be aware of Maasai Mara culture	N = 198 mean age range, 18–24 yrs CG: students experienced with 3DVR IG: students not experienced with 3DVR	DS: Self-administered questionnaire with closed-end questions; Observation TDC: Questionnaire administered at end of course; Observations taken during 3, 1-h classes for the CG and during 18, 2-h classes for the IG	Sense of relatedness predicted positive behaviour (p < 0.05) and had a positive impact on intrinsic motivation (p < 0.05); feeling effective predicted intrinsic motivation while in a VLE (p < 0.05); sense of autonomy in the VLE predicted positive behavioural intentions (p < 0.05) as well as positive emotions (p < 0.05). No significant relationship between perception of competence and intrinsic motivation (p > 0.05) or behavioural intention (p > 0.05).
Hursen, 2019, Cyprus	A: (1) To determine the effects of problem-based learning activities supported with Facebook on learner’s perceptions of self-efficacy for research-inquiry and, (2) to determine the views of students on problem-based learning in this context. RD: Mixed method study (qualitative & quantitative) IP: Using Facebook, students engaged in problem-solving activities	N = 25 mean age = 28 yrs	DS: Assessment test scores; Interviews TDC: Assessment was administered pre-IP and post-IP for whole group; interview was conducted post-IP for n = 14	While the dimensions of ‘avoidance’ and ‘personal development’ remained not significantly changed (pre and post), ‘sustained research’ showed significant positive change (z = -2.86, p < 0.05). Problem based learning activities supported by Facebook provided a positive increase in perceptions of self-efficacy for sustained research among adult students. This improvement is most notable in their specific self-efficacy perceptions for planning, focusing, and sustained research. The majority found the experience positive with the most notable negatives the result of Internet connectivity issues.
Jena, 2016, India	A: (1) To examine the inter-relation between student attitudes (SA), learning readiness (LR), and learning style (LS) in VLE-enabled higher education and, (2) to find any differences in attitudes based on students’ LS to establish whether a relationship exists between LR and LS in a VLE. RD: Experimental	N = 240 mean age = 22.8 yrs	DS: Questionnaires (Cronbach’s α = 0.90)	No significant differences of overall LS with respect to gender (p > 0.05) toward the use of VLE technology or toward the LR to use VLE technology (p > 0.05). The SA toward the use of VLE differ significantly with respect to their academic background (p < 0.05) but the LR of students toward the use of VLE does not differ significantly (p > 0.05) with respect to their academic background. The LS of students play a significant role in the prediction of student learning (p < 0.05).
Johnston et al., 2014, U.S.A	A: To examine 3 variables on the prevalence and quality of peer-to-peer (P2P) learning among students with disabilities: student aptitude for P2P learning, design of the VLE, and the social and pedagogical context where learning is targeted. RD: Comprehensive case study	N = 14: Teachers, n = 3; Administrators, n = 3; Data coaches, n = 2; caregivers, n = 3; students, n = 3 (mean age = 10 yrs)	DS: Individual, semi-structured interview transcripts; Focus group transcripts; Structured observation	A greater effort is required to satisfactorily support and train teachers and parents to explicitly identify and foster P2P learning to increase opportunities for all students to learn from each other while online. Without consistent P2P interaction, students with disabilities do not have the ability to grow in their independence and self-regulation skills.
Jones, 2015, U.S.A	A: (1) To describe the infrastructure and resources required for quality online learning, (2) to examine the benefits and challenges of teaching online vs. F2F, and (3) discuss the impact of the differences on students, educators, and practitioners. RD: Limited Case Study		DS: Author’s own experience of teaching online courses	(1) An office of distance learning is essential for establishing and maintaining standards of quality. (2) Benefits of teaching online include increased access and content that is comparable to F2F. Challenges of teaching online include lack of access to high-speed internet, extra tuition costs, less interaction and engagement, and extra time required. (3) Students and online teachers need training and equipment. More time is needed to adjust to the difference in the intense “presence” requirements. While writing online can allow for connection, only synchronous, real-time, video conferencing provided the necessary interpersonal interaction opportunities.
Kent et al., 2018, Australia	A: To report on the e-learning experience of those with disabilities, considering dimensions of accessibility and disclosure. RD: Correlational analysis	N = 125 mean age = 36 yrs	DS: Surveys with open response questions	Only 15% of enrolments are for the Humanities, but 44% of students with disabilities are enrolled in the Humanities. Of all students with disabilities, 48% did not receive accommodations for their disability; 24% experienced accessibility problems due to disability. The findings show that there is an increased need for universal design to reach all students, both in technology and pedagogy, especially considering that not all students disclosed their disability. There is also a need for disciplines outside of the humanities to reach out to students with disabilities.
Kumar & Owston, 2016, Canada	A: To determine the extent to which data from automated tools used to measure accessibility of e-learning units is predictive of the subjective experiences of students. RD: Case study	N = 24 Undergraduate students; Years 1–4 CG: automated tools (Achecker, Qompliance, WAVE, PPT, and Powertalk) IG: student users	DS: List of predicted accessibility barriers generated by automated tools; List of actual accessibility barriers generated by students; Post-experiment questionnaire; Semi-structured interview TDC: Midpoint and cessation of intervention	Student-centered methods are an essential component of e-learning accessibility evaluation. Automated tools and the accessibility conformance guidelines they are based on are not effective at identifying barriers to accessibility for e-learning and further, can omit barriers that may have significant impacts on students. More effort must be directed toward ensuring that students can understand the interface of the LMS.
Lan et al., 2018, Taiwan	A: (1) To establish the principles of designing a 3DVE for children with a disability for the purpose of learning their first language, and (2) to observe the effects of learning a first language in a 3DVE. RD: Design-based qualitative study IP: Using 3DVE Second Life simulation, students would engage with one another to practice their communication skills	N = 4 mean age range = 8–9 yrs	DS: Interview questionnaire with open response; Observations; Video recordings TDC: Daily in-class observations over months; Interview questionnaire administered at end of IP	For students with disabilities, difficulty in task should be gradually increased based on learner’s abilities. Voice functionality should be modulated as to not distract students and avatar and 3D item manipulation should be limited. Scene design should reflect student life experience. Interactive objects that can be manipulated interactively by multiple users are more popular with students. Children and their parents approved of learning by playing within the 3DVE as it increased their child’s linguistic communication skills.
Lee et al., 2016, U.S.A	A: To investigate whether online group work increased students’ satisfaction with interaction among students in an online course. RD: Quasi-experimental IP: Three identical online courses assigned the same project; CG will work individually, and IG will work in small groups online	N = 283 Undergraduate students, Year 1 CG: n = 94 IG: n = 189	DS: Survey with open-ended questions TDC: Survey administered 1 week after project due date	The group assignment did not influence students’ satisfaction (p = 0.407) with online interactions. Instead, students’ perceptions of the importance of interaction were associated with their satisfaction with interaction in the online course (p = 0.050). Additionally, the IG did not believe they learned more from the group than they would have if learning on their own. Online instructors and instructional designers need to do more to ensure LMS tools contribute to successful online collaboration.
Lee & Oh, 2017, South Korea	A: To examine the role of perceived stress on the relationship between academic stress and depressive symptoms among e-learning students with visual impairments. RD: Correlational analysis	N = 103 mean age = 41.3 yrs	DS: Perceived Stress Scale survey (PSS-10, Cronbach’s α = 0.816); Depressive symptoms survey using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Scale (CES-D, Cronbach’s α = 0.906); Academic stress survey using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (MBI-SS, Cronbach’s α = 0.912)	Academic stress was positively correlated with perceived stress (r = 0.355, p = 0.0001) and depressive symptoms (r = 0.337, p = 0.0001). Perceived stress was positively associated with depressive symptoms (r = 0.637, p = 0.0001). The association between academic stress and depressive symptoms was fully mediated by perceived stress. E-learning students with disabilities will experience these more acutely and thus are at higher risk.
Mallya et al., 2019, India	A: To examine the role of internet self-efficacy (ISE) as an antecedent construct to the technology acceptance model (TAM). RD: Quantitative	N = 448 Undergraduate students n = 287; Graduate students, n = 161	DS: Structured questionnaire	ISE has a significant influence on the perceived ease of using (PEOU) the Internet. ISE has a positive influence on both PEOU (p < 0.001) and perceived usefulness (PU) (p < 0.001). PU (p < 0.001) and PEOU (p < 0.001) have a positive influence on attitude toward using the internet (ATI). ATI (p < 0.001) and PU (p < 0.001) have a positive influence on behavioral intention towards internet (BI) and intend to use it for academic activities. The higher the self-efficacy, the higher will be their intention to use the internet for learning purposes.
Manthey et al., 2016, Germany	A: To examine the effects of regularly practicing cognitive interventions on subjective well-being using online video tools. RD: Experimental IP: Using online video instructions, IG1 will engage in reflective exercise regarding their ‘best possible selves’; IG2 will engaged in reflective exercise making ‘gratitude lists’ and, the CG will create ‘to-do lists’	N = 435 Student volunteers, age range 18–63 yrs CG: n = 150 IG: (1) n = 135; (2) n = 150	DS: Written reflections TDC: 2-month intervention; 1 month follow-up	Findings revealed that both interventions significantly increased subjective well-being in comparison to the control condition and thus, instructional internet video-based interventions have a direct effect on subjective well-being. These effects can be sustained over a 1-month follow-up period and are especially effective when the person-intervention fit is high. The effect size among the pre- and post-interventions ranged from r = 0.09-0.13.
Merlin-Knoblich et al., 2019, U.S.A	A: To examine student engagement in flipped and non-flipped courses. RD: Causal comparative method IP: Two identical online classes except the IG cohort completed readings and work online prior to attending the F2F component which included practice activities, and the CG did all the work in the F2F sessions	N = 67 graduate students CG: n = 37 IG: n = 30	DS: Questionnaires TDC: Questionnaires administered at the end of a 15-week semester	The IG self-reported significantly more affective engagement than the CG (p = 0.013, d = 0.61); significantly more behavioural engagement in terms of compliance compared to the CG (p = 0.038, d = 0.50); significantly more cognitive engagement than the CG (p = 0.013, d = 0.64); and significantly higher perceptions of overall engagement than the CG (p = 0.005, d = 0.70).
Mesman et al., 2009, The Netherlands	A: (1) To provide a structured insight into the themes that have been addressed using the still-face paradigm (SFP) as well as clarify reasons for and consequences of variations in the basic SFP procedure through a systematic review, and (2) to conduct a meta-analysis of studies that have used the SFP standard procedure to understand the still-face effect (SFE), the subsequent recovery effect, and a potential carry-over effect in terms of their magnitude for different behaviours and of potential sample and procedural moderators of these effects. RD: Systematic narrative review and meta-analysis	85 Studies for narrative review 39 Studies for meta-analysis	DS: The findings and conclusions of 124 studies	(1) The systematic narrative review indicates that the SFE that occurs is due to the break in normal social interaction rather than boredom and this effect is found across different samples in terms of demographic and risk variables. (2) The meta-analysis confirmed the findings of the systematic review in many ways. There was a decreasing positive affect and gaze and an increasing negative and neutral affect from the baseline to the still-face episode. As well, the hypothesized carry-over effect was found for positive and negative affect, regardless of procedural variations. Significantly, the SFE is universal among Western societies, in infants of varying ages, both genders, and those with normative development. Where there is a higher maternal sensitivity and positive behaviour there is more positive affect and less avoidance/negative affect.
Papanastasiou et al., 2019, Greece	A: To explore a sample of representative studies affecting K-12, higher and tertiary education students that highlight the theoretical and practical aspects of the use of VR/AR technology. RD: Literature Review	39 studies	DS: The findings of 39 studies	VR/AR technology can improve learning outcomes and are advantageous in terms of time and financial investment in K-12, higher and tertiary educational settings. These tools improve digital-age literacy, creative thinking skills, communication, collaboration, and problem-solving ability. VR/AR also enhances positively traditional curricula, especially for learners with disabilities. This technology also raises student engagement, promotes independent learning, enhances multi-sensory learning, confidence, and overall enjoyment.
Pryjmachuk et al., 2012, United Kingdom	A: To explore whether an online study skills course was ‘fit for purpose’, and (2) to test its effectiveness. RD: Mixed methods, concurrent, evaluative design	N = 63 mean age = 28.5 yrs	DS: Surveys (n = 63), Interviews (n = 12) TDC: Surveys administered at beginning, mid-point, cessation, and the interviews at follow-up	Survey reveals increased confidence across all fields with before and after median knowledge scores being 58.3% and 70.8% respectively. An online study skills course unit, designed using evidence-based principles, can produce benefits for students, especially in terms of increased confidence.
Roblek et al., 2019, Slovenia	A: To present how contemporary students are self-organizing using smart technologies (ST), and (2) to explore the future social implications of ST. RD: Narrative analysis and interpretation of qualitative data	N = 144 Undergraduate students, Years 1–4	DS: Questionnaire; Personal reflections	Students mostly use ST to save time while studying and for leisure. ST is so intertwined with their studies, work, and spare time that students can no longer conceive of their lives without it. Despite this deep integration of ST, students are concerned with issues of privacy and the effect ST will have on spending time with loved ones.
Rogowska et al., 2020, Poland	A: To examine the association of anxiety with self-rated general health, satisfaction with life, stress, and coping strategies of University students during the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in Poland. RD: Qualitative	N = 914 Undergraduate students; median age = 23 yrs	DS: Standard psychological questionnaire	Overall, 65% of students suffered from generalized anxiety disorder (32% mild; 21% moderate; 14% severe). Additionally, 56% reported a high level of perceived stress, shown to be a significant and positive predictor of anxiety disorders. Perceived stress, current health status, and general anxiety disorder correlate with each other at a high rate of statistical significance (p < 0.001). University students experience very high anxiety and stress during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Stone, 2019, Australia	A: To compare student and faculty perspectives on ways to improve outcomes in online learning. RD: Qualitative-correlational; Literature review	3 Studies (student total, n = 144; faculty total, n = 151)	DS: The findings of 3 research projects, which themselves incl. surveys and interviews	Several issues were shared by both groups: lack of inclusion for online learners as they are perceived to be low priority, lack of readiness for online tools, difficulty communicating clearly and in real-time and feelings of isolation from the rest of the group and campus.
Toulouse, 2020, U.S.A	A: To observe how using SCRs for evaluation feedback might engage online students in their learning process. RD: Exploratory	N = 125 (n = 50 at a public university in 2017; n = 75 at a private university in 2019)	DS: Survey with open response questions	SCRs used to prove feedback on assignments enhance connectedness by conveying faculty tone, caring, and an authentic human presence to students, thereby improving the student learning experience.
Wingo et al., 2016, U.S.A	A: To examine the benefits and challenges of teaching nursing courses online. RD: Qualitative-correlational	N = 21 Online faculty (F), n = 9; Administrators (A), n = 6; instructional designers (ID), n = 6	DS: Interviews, course demonstrations, course documents	F report difficulty in meeting student communication demands; A and ID did not see it as an issue or thought that in fact, they were not available enough. F and ID expressed a significant need for individualized training. More clarity is needed from institution when communicating program objectives and policies regarding course design and delivery.
Xavier et al., 2020, Portugal	A: (1) To identify the social, family, academic, and behavioural changes related to the COVID-19 pandemic in nursing students, and (2) to characterize their perceptions of health, information, and compliance with the enhanced health and safety measures. RD: Descriptive-correlational (quantitative)	N = 425 mean age = 21.4 yrs	DS: Survey using the COVID-19 International Student Well-being Survey (C19-ISWS)	The change in teaching method and movement to e-learning was a significant stressor even without a significant change in workload and a decrease in hours spent on academics. Significant concern for their health lead to a strict compliance of COVID-19 enhanced Health and Safety measures. Of note, 64% of students reported decreased communication with friends. Regarding their health, there was a significant decrease in tobacco (r = 0.68), alcohol (r = 0.72), and cannabis (r = 0.76) consumption among users.
Yilmaz, 2019, Turkey	A: To determine the predictive power of Facebook adoption and virtual environment loneliness (VEL) on knowledge sharing behaviours (KSB). RD: Correlational	N = 279 Undergraduate students, Year 1	DS: Questionnaires TDC: Questionnaires administered after 1 semester	There is a moderate correlation between knowledge sharing behaviours and Facebook adoption (p < 0.01) and among KSB and VEL (p < 0.01). Feelings of low loneliness improved the KSB (p < 0.01). Overall, KSB was high when Facebook was adopted.
Zeren, 2015, Turkey	A: To investigate F2F and online, synchronous chat counselling in terms of client problems and satisfaction. RD: Qualitative	N = 21 mean age = 22.3 yrs	DS: Surveys and transcripts of counselling sessions TDC: Surveys administered at beginning and cessation; Transcripts from last session	Rationale for seeking counselling generally did not differ for both F2F and online clients. Findings suggest that F2F clients and online clients have similar rates of satisfaction.
Zhu & Van Winkel, 2016, Belgium	A: To investigate the extent to which a VLE supports the continuation of education and school interactions among sick adolescents and their well-being. RD: Mixed methods (qualitative & quantitative)	N = 28 mean age = 14.6 yrs	DS: Structured questionnaire; Interviews	Students reported being satisfied with both the academic and social benefits of the full VLE. Of significant interest was being able to keep formal and informal contacts and social interactions with classmates. The VLE played an important role in making social and academic connections possible, reducing the social stress of the students. The more the students were fulfilled with the use of the VLE in helping them continue their education, the higher the measurement of mental well-being (p < 0.01).

Note: 3DVR: 3D Virtual Reality, 3DVE: 3D Virtual Environment, AR: Augmented Reality, BLM: Blended Learning Model, F2F: Face-to-Face, LMS: Learning Management System, SCR: Screen Capture Recording, VLE: Virtual Learning Environment