Table 2.
One-way ANCOVA examining the effect of insomnia group on the perceived stress, anxiety, and depression (adjusted mean ± SE).
| Variable | Post-Pandemic Insomnia (1) | Pre-existing Insomnia (2) | No Insomnia Symptoms (3) | F | df | P | Partial η2 | Post Hoc Comparison |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (A) | ||||||||
| Stress (PSS-10) | 21.42 ± .24 | 19.74 ± .27 | 15.31 ± .25 | 153.85 | 2, 2,041 | <.001* | .13 | 1 > 2*, 1 > 3*, 2 > 3* |
| Anxiety (STAI-6) | 46.51 ± .49 | 43.34 ± .55 | 34.42 ± .51 | 148.79 | 2, 2,043 | <.001* | .13 | 1 > 2*, 1 > 3*, 2 > 3* |
| Depression (PHQ-9) | 11.14 ± .20 | 9.97 ± .22 | 5.07 ± .21 | 237.35 | 2, 2,043 | <.001* | .19 | 1 > 2*, 1 > 3*, 2 > 3* |
| Probable Acute Insomnia (1) | Probable Insomnia Disorder (2) | Good Sleepers (3) | F | df | P | Partial η2 | Post Hoc Comparison | |
| (B) | ||||||||
| Stress (PSS-10) | 22.74 ± .36 | 21.36 ± .32 | 14.35 ± .27 | 210.29 | 2, 1,264 | <.001* | .25 | 1 > 2*, 1 > 3*, 2 > 3* |
| Anxiety (STAI-6) | 49.90 ± .72 | 45.83 ± .64 | 32.70 ± .53 | 210.14 | 2, 1,262 | <.001* | .25 | 1 > 2*, 1 > 3*, 2 > 3* |
| Depression (PHQ-9) | 12.74 ± .29 | 11.68 ± .26 | 4.14 ± .21 | 372.35 | 2, 1,262 | <.001* | .37 | 1 > 2*, 1 > 3*, 2 > 3* |
Adjusted means and SEs account for age, sex, education, employment, finances impacted, use of sleep medications and stringency of government COVID-19 restrictions (OxCGRT). (A) n = 2,052. (B) Subanalysis of participants (n = 1,273) meeting probable diagnostic criteria for Acute Insomnia and Insomnia Disorder based on Sleep Condition Indicator scores and symptom duration. *P < .01. ANCOVA = analysis of covariance, COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019, OxCGRT = Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker, PSS-10 = Perceived Stress Scale, PHQ-9 = 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire, SE = standard error, STAI-6 = 6-item State Trait Anxiety Inventory.