Table 2:

Biomarkers and approaches in development for the early detection of pancreatic cancer

Biological fluid-based biomarker approaches	Cyst fluid	Monoclonal antibody Das-1 48 KRAS/GNAS/TP53/PIK3CA/PTEN gene mutation 43 Methylated TBX15 and BMP3 47
	Pancreatic juice	Methylated C13orf18, FER1L4, and BMP3 57
	Blood	-CA 19–9 (in a multi-marker panel) 54 -Thrombospondin 2 (THBS2) 53 -CancerSEEK: A panel of proteins and mutations in cfDNA59 -Plasma methylated DNA markers 52
	Urine	Protein panel including LYVE-1, REG1A, and TFF160
	Stool	Proteobacterial and Firmicutes microbial dominance in early stages of PDAC 61
Other novel approaches	END-PAC model	Score derived in individuals with new-onset diabetes mellitus using change in body weight, change in blood glucose, and age at onset of diabetes 28
	CompCyst	Supervised machine-learning model incorporating clinical and imaging features, cyst fluid genetic and biochemical markers 49
	EUS-based artificial intelligence models	-Detecting advanced neoplasia in pancreatic cysts 42 -Differentiating PDAC from pancreatitis 34