Table 4.

Biotic and abiotic factors that affect oil palm yield

Biotic and abiotic factors	Anticipated changes/outcome for the 21st century	Expected outcome on oil palm yield
Average annual rainfall	Influenced by local geographical differences. Increase in some locations, while decrease in others.	Heavy rainfall without prolong flooding increased yield turnover, while low rainfall depicted low yield harvest (FFB)
Uncertainty and rainfall variability	Low rainfall accompanied with droughts and frequent flooding	Yield decline drastically
Temperature variability	Increase	High evapotranspiration, salinity and dry soil
Carbon dioxide concentration (CO2)	Increase	High yield
Sea levels	Increase	Damages at coastal plantation and incurred losses
Pests and diseases	Increase	Damages oil palm and affects yield
Pollinators	Decrease	Reduction in yield

Source: Fleiss et al. (2017)