Fig. 2.

Evolution of immune responses following supramolecular peptide-based vaccine delivery. After vaccine administration (1), tissue resident APCs such as DCs and MΦs internalize the constructs and process them through either the exogenous or endogenous pathway to present the antigenic epitopes on MHC II or MHC I molecules, respectively (2). The antigen-laden APCs then migrate to the dLNs for antigen presentation to CD4⁺ or CD8⁺ T cells. The interaction between MHC molecules and TCRs is supported by costimulatory signals, including ligand–receptor interactions and cytokine signaling, which enhance T cell responses and drive differentiation (3). T_H cells then direct further immune activation through cytokine signaling and interaction with B cells and CD8⁺ T cells. Activated B cells interact with antigen-specific T cells and differentiate into plasma cells that produce long-lived antibody responses. Crosstalk between CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells leads to the production of cytotoxic T lymphocytes that detect and eliminate infected cells (4). Created with https://www.BioRender.com.