TABLE 4.
LMER models for the Northern Cities Shift. The dependent variable is F2 for thought (AO), lot (AA) and strut (AH), and F2-2xF1 for trap (AE) and dress (EH). R 2 shows the marginal and conditional coefficients. Deltas show the difference between the mean position of the Southern vowel and the mean position of the Northern vowel for each transcription type: AA shows divergence in GT/DS results; for the other vowels, either both models detect a difference between Inland and General North or they do not.
| A. Results for region and transcription type; R 2 for entire model | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vowels | Region by Transcription | Region | Transcription | Post-hoc ΔRegionGT | Post-hoc ΔRegionDS | R 2 |
| AA (n = 1901) | p = 0.08 | p = 0.29 | p = 0.50 | Δ = 0.15 t (94) = 2.9, p < 0.05 | Δ = 0.07 p = 0.76 | 0.01 |
| 0.72 | ||||||
| AE (n = 3433) | βGT:InlandNorth = −0.02 ± 0.01 t (256) = −2.0, p < 0.05 | βInlandNorth = −0.05 ± 0.01 t (312) = −4.8, p < 0.0001 | p = 0.47 | Δ = 0.83 z = 6.8, p < 0.0001 | Δ = 0.65 z = 4.8, p < 0.0001 | 0.27 |
| 0.67 | ||||||
| AH (n = 3388) | p = 0.13 | p = 0.24 | βGT = −0.02 ± 0.007 t (2703) = −3.0, p < 0.005 | Δ = 0.12 p = 0.07 | Δ = 0.06 p = 0.64 | 0.02 |
| 0.54 | ||||||
| AO (n = 1049) | p = 0.72 | p = 0.12 | p = 0.15 | Δ = 0.18 p = 0.58 | Δ = 0.16 p = 0.46 | 0.03 |
| 0.74 | ||||||
| EH (n = 4016) | p = 0.31 | p = 0.98 | p = 0.12 | Δ = 0.21 p = 0.88 | Δ = 0.18 p = 1.0 | 0.03 |
| 0.48 | ||||||
| B. Results for other social and linguistic variables in the model | ||||||
| Vowels | Year of birth | Gender | Following environment (Nasal vs. voiced obstruent) | Following environment (Nasal versus voiceless obstruent) | ||
| AA (n = 1901) | β = −0.01 ± 0.004, t (137) = −2.5, p < 0.05 | p = 0.68 | p = 0.68 | p = 0.41 | ||
| AE (n = 3433) | β = 0.02 ± 0.004, t (192) = −3.9, p < 0.0005 | βmale = 0.02 ± 0.007, t (191) = 2.5, p < 0.05 | βNas/+VoicedObs = −0.12 ± 0.01, t (219) = −8.3, p < 0.00001 | βNas/-VoicedObs = −0.17 ± 0.01, t (359) = −14.9, p < 0.00001 | ||
| AH (n = 3388) | p = 0.08 | p = 0.25 | p = 0.80 | p = 0.06 | ||
| AO (n = 1049) | p = 0.17 | p = 0.20 | p = 0.15 | p = 0.58 | ||
| EH (n = 4016) | β = 0.01 ± 0.004, t (172) = −3.8, p < 0.0005 | βmale = 0.02 ± 0.008, t (172) = 3.1, p < 0.005 | p = 0.42 | βNas/-VoicedObs = −0.04 ± 0.01, t (310) = −3.4, p < 0.001 | ||