Table 4.

Summary of case studies for 3D cell culture vascularization strategies

Vascularization method		Tissue/organ model	Biomaterial composition	Cellular composition	Duration of in vitro study	In vivo evaluation	Refs.
Spheroids	Scaffold‐ free	Bone	–	Osteoblasts, dermal microvascular ECs, normal dermal fibroblasts (all from human)	3 days	2 weeks	[ 139 ]
		Dental pulp	–	Dental pulp stem cells, HUVECs	3 days	4 weeks	[ 129 ]
		Liver	–	Rat hepatocytes, HUVECs	25 days	No	[ 140 ]
		Heart	–	Rat neonatal ventricular cardiomyocytes, human dermal fibroblasts, human CMECs	7 days	7 days	[ 148 ]
		BBB	–	Brain ECs, pericytes, astrocytes (all from primary human source)	3 days	No	[ 128 ]
	Scaffold‐based	Skin	Hyaluronan; chitosan	ASCs	3 days	8 days	[ 152 ]
		Adipose tissue	PLGA hydrogel	ASCs	2–3 weeks	3 months	[ 147 ]
		Bone	RGD‐modified alginate gel Polyurethane Poly(propylene fumarate); fibrin	MSCs ASCs hMSCs, HUVECs	2–3 days 3 days 1–3 weeks	2 months 2 weeks 9 days	[ 146 , 153 , 154 ]
Organoids	Scaffold‐free	Brain/BBB	–	hiPSCs	Up to 4 months	No	[ 156 ]
		Intestine	–	hESCs/hiPSCs	35 days	6 weeks	[ 119 ]
		Kidney	–	hPSCs	25 days	28 days	[ 118 ]
		Brain	– –	hESCs → ECs and organoids hiPSCs → ECs and organoids	Up to 4 months 54 days	30 days 7 days	[ 116 , 155 ]
		Liver	–	hiPSC‐endoderm cells, hiPSC‐ECs, MSCs	3 days	14 days	[ 125 , 157 ]
		Pancreatic islet, brain, heart, lung, intestine, kidney, liver fragments	–	Tissue fragment, HUVECs, hMSCs	1 day	1 month	[ 126 ]