Table 5.

Summary of case studies for bioprinting vascularization strategies. Abbreviations not used previously: Col: collagen; GMECs: glomerular microvascular endothelial cells; hFob: human fetal osteoblasts; hiPSC‐CM: induced pluripotent stem cell‐derived cardiomyocytes; hiPSC‐EC: induced pluripotent stem cell‐derived endothelial cells; I: inner diameter; LAP: lithium phenyl‐2,4,6‐trimethyl‐benzoyl‐phosphinate; O: outer diameter; PCL: polycaprolactone; PTECs: proximal tubule epithelial cells; SCAPs: stem cells from the apical papilla

Vascularization method	Coaxial	Sacrificial	Organ/tissue model	Needle diameter	Vessel caliber	Biomaterial composition	Cellular composition	Duration of in vitro study	In vivo evaluation	Refs.
Extrusion‐based	No	No	Bone	0.33 mm (I)	Microvessels	Gel, GelMA, Ac‐GelMA	hDMECs, hADSCs, hADSCs differentiated in osteoblasts	14 days	No	[ 199 ]
			Heart	26G	Microvessels	PCL, heart‐derived ECM	MSC, CPC	5 days	Yes	[ 200 ]
			Skin	0.25 mm	Microvessels	PLGA, fibrin	iPSC‐ECs, perycites, neonatal fibroblasts, keratynocytes	7 days	No	[ 207 ]
			Heart	1.6 mm	1 mm	Agarose, alginate, platelet rich plasma	HUVECs, H9c2 CM	14 days	No	[ 190 ]
			Liver	0.25 mm	Microvessels	PCL, Col	HUVECs, hLFs, hepatocytes	14 days	No	[ 196 ]
		Yes	Liver	0.5 mm	0.15–0.2 mm	Col 3%, alginate 3% (sacrificial)	EA.hy 926, HepG2/C3A	10 days	No	[ 180 ]
			Bone	0.7 mm	Microvessels	Gel/nHA, Gel‐MA/fibrin	HUVECs, hMSC hMSCs differentiated in osteoblasts	5 weeks	No	[ 202 ]
			Heart	30G	0.3–0.4 mm	Decellularized momentum, alginate (sacrificial)	hiPSC‐ECs, hiPSC‐CMs, HUVECs, rat CM, fibroblasts	7 days	No	[ 194 ]
			Bone	0.5 mm	0.5 mm	GelMA‐high, GelMA‐low (sacrificial)	HUVECs, hMSCs	21 days	No	[ 192 ]
			Bone	0.1–0.4 mm	0.4 mm	Gel, fibrinogen, thrombin transglutaminases, poloxamer (sacrificial)	HUVECs, hNDFs, hMSCs	>6 weeks	No	[ 95 ]
			Kidney	0.41 mm	0.2 mm	Gel, fibrinogen, transglutaminase, poloxamer (sacrificial)	GMECs, PTECs	18 days	No	[ 75 ]
	Yes	Yes	Cancer tissue and osteogenic tissue	27G (I), 17G (O)	0.2–1 mm	GelMA, Gel (sacrificial)	HUVECs, MDA‐MB‐231, MC3T3‐E1	20 days	No	[ 181 ]
			Heart	26G (I), 19G (O)	Microvessels	PEG, fibrinogen, alginate (sacrificial)	HUVECs, iPSC‐CMs	7 days	Yes	[ 183 ]
			Heart	27G (I), 18G (O)	0.2 mm	GelMA, Alginate (sacrificial)	HUVECs, neonatal CM	28 days	No	[ 197 ]
			–	27–30G (I), 18–25G (O)	0.3–1.5 mm	GelMA, PEGTA, alginate (sacrificial)	HUVECs, MSCs	21 days	No	[ 195 ]
			Cardiac	27G (I), 18G (O)	0.3 mm	GelMA, alginate (sacrificial)	HUVECs, neonatal CM	33 days	No	[ 108 ]
			Pancreas	0.4 mm	Microvessels	GelMA, alginate (sacrificial)	hEPCs, pancreatic islets (organoids)	15 days	Yes	[ 198 ]
Laser‐based	–	–	Heart	–	Microvasculature	Polyester urethane urea patch, Matrigel	HUVECs, hMSC	8 days	Yes	[ 213 ]
	–	–	Bone	–	Microvasculature	Col	HUVECs, SCAPs	–	Yes	[ 214 ]
Vat photopolymerization: SLA	–	–	Liver	–	Microvessels	Glycidal methacrylate‐HA, GelMA Photoinitiator: LAP	HUVECs, MSCs, HepG2	7 days	Yes	[ 203 ]
	–	–	Breast cancer	–	Microvessels	GelMA, PEGDA Photoinitiator: LAP	HUVECs, MCF7, C2C12, fibroblasts, MSCs	7 days	No	[ 204 ]
	–	–	Liver	–	Microvessels	GelMA, PEGDA Photoinitiator: LAP Photoabsorbers: tartrazine, curcumine, anthocyanine	HUVECs, hepatic aggregates (rat primary hepatocytes and NHDFs)	–	Yes	[ 176 ]
	–	–	Breast cancer	–	500 μm and microvessels	GelMA, PEGDA Photoinitiator: Irgacure 2959	HUVECs, breast cancer cell lines: MDA‐MB‐231 and MCF‐7, hFob	14 days	No	[ 205 ]
Dual 3D printing (SLA and FDM)	–	–	Bone	–	0.5–1 mm and microvessels	GelMA, PEGDA, PVA (sacrificial) Photoinitiator: Irgacure 2959	HUVECs, hMSCs	20 days	No	[ 206 ]