Table 4.

Cognitive Level at Baseline (Cohen’s d, SD) and Cognitive Change (Cohen’s d, SD/year) by Frailty Status (PFP) and Its Criteria Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults in the National Health and Aging Trends Study (2011–2016, n = 7439) in the Same Model

	Cognitive Level at Baseline
Criterion	Nonfrail β k Cohen’s d (SE)	Frail β k + β k+5 Cohen’s d (SE)	Excess Effect β k+5 Cohen’s d (SE)
Weight loss	−0.090 (0.026)**	−0.094 (0.036)**	−0.004 (0.044)
Exhaustion	−0.009 (0.018)	0.012 (0.041)	0.021 (0.044)
Low physical activity	−0.044 (0.018)**	−0.016 (0.040)	0.028 (0.043)
Slow gait	−0.276 (0.028)**	−0.232 (0.037)**	0.045 (0.045)
Weakness	−0.069 (0.023)**	−0.176 (0.037)**	−0.106 (0.042)**
	Cognitive Change
Criterion	Nonfrail β k+11 Cohen’s d/year (SE)	Frail β k+11 + β k+16 Cohen’s d/year (SE)	Excess Effect β k+16 Cohen’s d/year (SE)
Weight loss	−0.022 (0.007)**	−0.007 (0.012)	0.015 (0.013)
Exhaustion	−0.001 (0.005)	0.007 (0.013)	0.008 (0.014)
Low physical activity	−0.001 (0.005)	−0.021 (0.013)	−0.019 (0.014)
Slow gait	−0.029 (0.007)**	−0.030 (0.012)**	−0.001 (0.014)
Weakness	−0.019 (0.007)**	0.012 (0.012)	0.031 (0.013)**

Notes: PFP = physical frailty phenotype. Frailty was operationalized using the PFP. Results from a series of multiple linear regression models with random slopes (time) and intercepts (person) testing the associations between the individual frailty criteria and cognitive level and change among frail versus nonfrail participants. All models were controlled for age, sex, race, education, income, number of comorbidities, and each of the other PFP criteria. Excess effect refers to the association between frailty and cognitive performance/decline above and beyond each of the respective criteria (ie, for those who are positive for frailty and positive for the criterion of interest).

$E(\mathrm{C}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{g}{{\mathrm{n}}_{ij}}_{}|{X_{ij}}_{}(b_{0i},b_{1i})=({\mathrm{\beta }}_0+b_{0i})+{\sum }^5{{}_k}_{=1}[{\mathrm{\beta }}_k\left(\mathrm{C}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{o}{\mathrm{n}}_k\right)+$ $\begin{array}{l}{{\mathrm{\beta }}_k}_{+5}(\mathrm{C}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{o}{\mathrm{n}}_k\ast \mathrm{P}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{P})+({\mathrm{\beta }}_{11}+{\mathrm{b}}_{1i})(\mathrm{T}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{e})+{{\mathrm{\beta }}_k}_{+11}(\mathrm{T}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{e}\ast \mathrm{C}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}{\mathrm{a}}_k)+{{\mathrm{\beta }}_k}_{+16}(\mathrm{T}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{e}\ast \mathrm{P}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{P}\ast \end{array}$ $\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}{\mathrm{a}}_k)]+\sum {\mathrm{\beta }}^{27}{{}_m}_{=22}(\mathrm{C}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}{\mathrm{s}}_m)+{\epsilon }_{ij}\end{array}$ **Significance at a cutoff level of p = .05.