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. 2021 Oct 9;17:119. doi: 10.1186/s12992-021-00767-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 3 — Multiple components of adversity are geographically clustered across low and middle-income countries. Persistent socio-ecological stresses include (a) food insecurity and vulnerability to climate change; (b) poverty measured as the proportion of the population living on <USD 3.1 per day; (c) infectious disease burden assessed as the disability-adjusted life years per 100,00 population attributable to communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional diseases; (d) prevalence of marriage < 18 years among women aged 20–24 years; (e) women’s disadvantaged status in society, measured by the Gender Inequality Index; and (f) coerced labour, assessed as the estimated prevalence of slavery per 1000 population; Maps (a) to (f) show similarity to (h) the prevalence of stunting, a composite marker of undernutrition, categorised as height z-score < − 2. (g) The same countries have experienced exposure to economic liberalisation, assessed as the number of years subject to structural adjustment programs between 1981 and 2004. Data from ‘Our World in Data’ or [68–73]