Table 1.
Characteristics of study subjects according to their working from home status.
| All | Working from Home (−) | Working from Home (+) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | p Value | ||
| Total | 15,670 (100.0) | N = 11,894 | N = 3776 | ||
| Age | 45.6 (13.8) | 46.1 (13.9) | 43.9 (13.1) | <0.001 | |
| Gender, male | 9137 (58.3) | 6598 (55.5) | 2539 (67.2) | <0.001 | |
| Marital status | Married | 9351 (59.7) | 7010 (58.9) | 2341 (62.0) | <0.001 |
| Never married | 4926 (31.4) | 3725 (31.3) | 1201 (31.8) | ||
| Widowed | 258 (1.6) | 215 (1.8) | 43 (1.1) | ||
| Separated | 1135 (7.2) | 944 (7.9) | 191 (5.1) | ||
| Number of members per household | 2.8 (2.4) | 2.8 (2.5) | 2.7 (2.1) | 0.13 | |
| Shoulder pain | Yes | 7492 (47.8) | 5451 (45.8) | 2041 (54.1) | <0.001 |
| Back pain | Yes | 5817 (37.1) | 4305 (36.2) | 1512 (40.0) | <0.001 |
| Mental disorders | Yes | 5736 (36.6) | 4209 (35.4) | 1527 (40.4) | <0.001 |
| Healthy behavior | |||||
| Physical activity | Decreased | 4085 (26.1) | 2754 (23.2) | 1331 (35.2) | <0.001 |
| Unchanged | 9972 (63.6) | 8106 (68.2) | 1866 (49.4) | ||
| Increased | 1613 (10.3) | 1034 (8.7) | 579 (15.3) | ||
| Sleeping hours | Decreased | 1666 (10.6) | 933 (7.8) | 733 (19.4) | <0.001 |
| Unchanged | 12,436 (79.4) | 9809 (82.5) | 2627 (69.6) | ||
| Increased | 1568 (10.0) | 1152 (9.7) | 416 (11.0) | ||
| Not eating breakfast | Increased | 721 (4.6) | 448 (3.8) | 273 (7.2) | <0.001 |
| Unchanged | 13,744 (87.7) | 10,648 (89.5) | 3096 (82.0) | ||
| Decreased | 1205 (7.7) | 798 (6.7) | 407 (10.8) | ||
| Drinking alcohol | Increased | 1642 (10.5) | 1065 (9.0) | 577 (15.3) | <0.001 |
| Unchanged | 10,871 (69.4) | 8736 (73.4) | 2135 (56.5) | ||
| Decreased | 3157 (20.1) | 2093 (17.6) | 1064 (28.2) | ||
| Smoking | Increased | 667 (4.3) | 423 (3.6) | 244 (6.5) | <0.001 |
| Unchanged | 13,720 (87.6) | 10,561 (88.8) | 3159 (83.7) | ||
| Decreased | 1283 (8.2) | 910 (7.7) | 373 (9.9) | ||
| Interacting | |||||
| With supervisors | Worse | 1292 (8.2) | 930 (7.8) | 362 (9.6) | <0.001 |
| Unchanged | 13,780 (87.9) | 10,584 (89.0) | 3196 (84.6) | ||
| Better | 598 (3.8) | 380 (3.2) | 218 (5.8) | ||
| With co-workers | Worse | 1105 (7.1) | 797 (6.7) | 308 (8.2) | <0.001 |
| Unchanged | 13,963 (89.1) | 10,710 (90.0) | 3253 (86.1) | ||
| Better | 602 (3.8) | 387 (3.3) | 215 (5.7) | ||
| Working hours | ≤40 h/week | 10,842 (69.2) | 7810 (65.7) | 3032 (80.3) | <0.001 |
| Kind of job | Office work | 7670 (48.9) | 4988 (41.9) | 2682 (71.0) | <0.001 |
| Work in sales | 3842 (24.5) | 2981 (25.1) | 861 (22.8) | ||
| Physical labor | 4158 (26.5) | 3925 (33.0) | 233 (6.2) | ||
| Socioeconomic status | |||||
| Education | >12 y | 11,771 (75.1) | 8462 (71.1) | 3309 (87.6) | <0.001 |
| Household income | −2.99 | 2129 (13.6) | 1858 (15.6) | 271 (7.2) | <0.001 |
| (million JPY/year) | 3.00–7.99 | 7486 (47.8) | 5763 (48.5) | 1723 (45.6) | |
| 8.00- | 3641 (23.2) | 2274 (19.1) | 1367 (36.2) | ||
| Unknown | 2414 (15.4) | 1999 (16.8) | 415 (11.0) | ||
| Employee status | Permanent | 9837 (62.8) | 6880 (57.8) | 2957 (78.3) | <0.001 |
| Precarious | 4277 (27.3) | 3757 (31.6) | 520 (13.8) | ||
| Other | 1556 (9.9) | 1257 (10.6) | 299 (7.9) | ||
| Work engagement * | high | 6874 (43.9) | 5204 (43.8) | 1670 (44.2) | <0.001 |
| Work engagement (sensitivity analysis) ** | high | 9327 (59.5) | 6949 (58.4) | 2378 (63.0) | <0.001 |
h, hour; y, year. In the analysis, continuous data were expressed as means (standard deviations) and categorical data as numbers (percentages). * The question (“Do you feel energized when you are at work?”) was used for the main analysis. ** Another question (“Do you take pride in your work?”) was used for sensitivity analysis and for clarifying employees’ work engagement.