Table 2.
Final multinomial logistic regression model for moderate and severe loneliness pre COVID-19 (UCLA).
| Base: None/Low Loneliness (UCLA = 0–4) | Moderate Loneliness (UCLA = 5–6) | Severe Loneliness (UCLA 7+) |
|---|---|---|
| RRR 95% CI | RRR 95% CI * Significance |
|
| 18–34 (ref) 35–44 45–54 55–69 70 and over |
1.00 1.02 (0.78–1.32) 0.80 (0.62–1.03) 0.72 (0.57–0.91) ** 0.58 (0.42–0.78) *** |
1.00 1.07 (0.72–1.59) 0.63 (0.42–0.94) * 0.66 (0.46–0.95) * 0.48 (0.30–0.77) ** |
| Female | 1.81 (0.99–1.40) | 1.10 (0.84–1.43) |
|
Education (ref: Degree or higher) Secondary/diploma To elementary |
1.00 1.02 (0.87–1.19) 1.21 (0.66–2.24) |
1.00 1.20 (0.96–1.51) 0.54 (0.19–1.51) |
|
Finances meet needs: (ref: very well) Fairly well Poorly |
1.00 1.30 (1.12–1.50) *** 1.55 (1.22–1.97) *** |
1.00 1.57 (1.23–2.00) *** 3.31 (2.40–4.58) *** |
| Member of minority | 1.06 (0.85–1.30) | 0.87 (0.62–1.21) |
|
Employment status (ref: employed including work from home) Self employed In education/training Unemployed/not working Retired Other/homemaker |
1.00 0.86 (0.65–1.18) 1.30 (0.97–1.74) 1.08 (0.84–1.40) 0.96 (0.77–1.18) 1.08 (0.83–1.42) |
1.00 0.93 (0.57–1.50) 1.73 (1.14–2.63) * 1.24 (0.86–1.81) 1.21 (0.86–1.70) 1.68 (1.16–2.44) ** |
| Self-rated mental health Fair/poor | 2.61 (2.23–3.07) *** | 5.27 (4.19–6.63) *** |
| Self-rated physical health Fair/poor | 1.49 (1.24–1.79) *** | 1.32 (1.02–1.71) * |
|
Sleep during COVID-19 (ref: about the same) Better than before Worse than before |
1.00 1.32 (1.02–1.72) * 1.35 (1.17–1.56) *** |
1.00 1.50 (1.00–2.25) 1.08 (0.86–1.35) |
|
Physical activity COVID-19 (ref: about the same) Less than before More than before |
1.00 1.17 (1.00–1.36) 1.09 (0.89–1.34) |
1.00 0.96 (0.76–1.22) 0.99 (0.72–1.37) |
|
Alcohol consumption during COVID-19 (ref: about the same) Less than before More than before Do not partake |
1.00 0.84 (0.67–1.07) 0.99 (0.81–1.22) 1.03 (0.87–1.21) |
1.00 0.94 (0.66–1.35) 0.99 (0.71–1.38) 1.27 (0.99–1.64) |
|
Urban (ref: city) Town Rural |
1.00 0.99 (0.85–1.17) 1.13 (0.95–1.35) |
1.00 1.14 (0.89–1.44) 1.10 (0.83–1.44) |
|
Close-knit neighbourhood (ref: 5 (Strongly agree)) 1 (Strongly disagree) 2 3 4 |
1.00 2.05 (1.52−2.75) *** 1.61 (1.26−2.07) *** 1.66 (1.31−2.10) *** 1.14 (0.88−1.48) |
1.00 1.62 (1.06−2.48) * 1.33 (0.92−1.92) 0.98 (0.69−1.41) 0.94 (0.64−1.38) |
|
Time in area (ref: 10 years+) 1–4 years 5–9 years |
1.00 1.29 (1.08−1.55) ** 1.11 (0.90−1.36) |
1.00 1.49 (1.15−1.93) ** 0.99 (0.71−1.39) |
|
Pre COVID-19 video calls (ref: often) Hardly ever/never Sometimes |
1.00 0.68 (0.54−0.85) ** 0.88 (0.70−1.09) |
1.00 1.01 (0.71−1.46) 0.78 (0.53−1.13) |
|
During COVID-19 video calls (ref: often) Hardly ever/never Sometimes |
1.00 1.79 (1.44−2.23) *** 1.36 (1.13−1.63) ** |
1.00 1.55 (1.11−2.16) * 1.02 (0.75−1.38) |
|
Satisfaction with video calls (ref: 5 (very satisfied)) 1 (very dissatisfied) 2 3 4 |
1.00 1.51 (1.13−2.01) * 1.31 1.04−1.67) * 1.16 (0.93−1.44) 1.13 (0.94−1.35) |
1.00 1.44 (0.95−2.17) 1.44 (1.01−2.06) * 1.21 (0.86−1.71) 1.05 (0.78−1.41) |
|
Living alone (ref: lives with others) Lives alone by choice Lives alone not by choice |
1.00 0.85 (0.71−1.02) 1.57 (1.18−2.09) ** |
1.00 0.66 (0.49−0.87) ** 2.70 (1.91−3.81) *** |
|
Pre-COVID-19 time alone (ref: always) Often Seldom Never |
1.00 0.88 (0.58−1.35) 0.38 (0.24−0.58) *** 0.29 (0.18−0.48) *** |
1.00 0.30 (0.19−0.45) *** 0.06 (0.04−0.10) *** 0.11 (0.06−0.19) *** |
|
Importance of religion (ref: 1 (not at all important)) 2 3 4 5 (very important) |
1.00 1.07 (0.86−1.32) 1.01 (0.79−1.28) 1.26 (1.03−1.54) * 1.17 (0.98−1.40) |
1.00 0.99 (0.71−1.36) 1.08 (0.76−1.53) 0.92 (0.67−1.27) 0.83 (0.63−1.11) |
*** = p < 0.001; ** = p < 0.005; * = p < 0.05.