Table 2.

Clinical application of bone tissue engineering.

Indication	Stem Cell	Scaffold	Growth Factor	Outcome	Reference
Widespread traumatic calvarial defects	Adipose-derived stem cells	Fibrin	/	After 3 months, new bone formed with near complete calvarial continuity observed by axial and 3D-CT scans.	[18]
Severe mandibular ridge resorption	Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells	Biphasic calcium phosphate	IGF-1, VEGF, and TGF-β	After 4 to 6 months, bone healed, as the mean volume of bone increased by 887.23 mm3, with little adverse events or side effects.	[121]
Large anterior mandibular defect	Adipose-derived stem cells	β-tricalcium phosphate	Recombinant human BMP-2	After 10 months, dental implants were inserted into the grafted site to allow the harvest of bone cores, and prosthodontic rehabilitation was completed based on the visualization of panoramic radiographs.	[122]
Standardized critical-size cranial defects after neurosurgery	/	Hyaluronan	BMP-2	After 3 to 6 weeks, bone was repaired with an increase in bone area of approximately 56 mm2, and no local or systemic side effects were observed.	[123]
Infrabony defects	Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells	β-tricalcium phosphate	rh-PDGF-BB	6 months after surgery, the treatment resulted in a significant added benefit in terms of clinical attachment level gain (3.91 mm compared to 2.08), probing pocket depth reduction (4.50 mm compared to 3.50 mm), greater radiographic defect fill (88.33% compared to 52.77%), and improvement in linear bone growth (3.58 mm compared to 1.83 mm) in comparison to open flap debridement alone.	[124]
Spinal stenosis	Stromal vascular fraction (SVF)	β-tricalcium phosphate	/	After 6 months, the SVF/β-TCP mixture possessed higher fusion grade (3.6 compared to 2.8) and fusion rate (54.5% compared to 18.1%) than the cages filled with β-TCP. Side effects were observed in 3 out of 10 patients.	[125]
Support bone formation after sinus lift augmentation	/	β-tricalcium phosphate	Recombinant human growth and differentiation factor-5 (rhGDF-5)	The amount of new bone was between 28–31.8%. Implants failed in 4 of 47 patients (8.5%) treated with RHGDF-5/β-TCP, in agreement with the general implant failure rate of 5–15%.	[126]
Maxillary cysts	Autologous bone-derived mesenchymal stem cells	BioMax cross-linked serum scaffold	/	After 7 months, the CT density of the cyst interior increased significantly, as the mean ratio of the CT values after/before treatment was 2.52, and importantly, the density of the contralateral control area of spongy alveolar bone without treatment did not change, as the average after/before ratio was 0.99. No inflammation or other adverse effects were observed.	[127]
Intrabony defects	Autologous clinical-grade alveolar bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Collagen enriched with autologous fibrin/platelet lysate	/	After 12 months, the bio-complex led to significant clinical improvements for all groups with an average 3.0 mm attachment gain, 3.7 mm probing pocket depth reduction, and 0.7 mm increase in recession, without adverse healing events.	[128]