. 2021 Sep 30;13(19):3365. doi: 10.3390/polym13193365

Table 1.

Fabrication of BC and BC-based biocomposites under static and agitation culture methods, their properties, and applications.

Bacterial Cellulose and Bacterial Cellulose-Based Biocomposites	Applications	Structure and Properties	References
Fabrication of BC and BC-based composites under static culture methods
BC	BC mask	Fast healing, high moisture donation, and high conformability	Saxena et al. [107]
	Blood vessel; Vascular grafts	Excellent mechanical properties, thin layers, dense	Putra et al. [108]
	Implant material for auricular cartilage regeneration and for ear cartilage replacement	Compatible mechanical strength and patient-specific shapes	Nimeskern et al. [109]
	Potential meniscus implant	High compression strain and mechanical strength	Bodin et al. [110]
	Replacement of blood vessels and diseased arteries	High water holding capacity and mechanical strength	Charpentier et al. [111]
	Artificial blood vessels for microsurgery	The smooth inner surface, moldability, and high mechanical properties	Klemm et al. [112]
	Artificial cornea and eye bioengineering Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)	High elastic modulus, tensile strength and elongation at break, high initial cell adhesion, porous, permeable up to 300 kDa, and dimensionally stable	Padra et al. [98]
BC/polycaprolactone biocomposites	Tissue substitutes in rabbits’ cornea	Signs of the moderate inflammatory process, pro- tected ocular surface and remained stable in corneal tissue during the 45-day follow-up	Sepúlveda et al. [113]
BC/polycaprolactone (PCL) biocomposites	Biodegradable food packaging	Good transparency of the BC/PCL, smooth surface morphology	Barud et al. [114]
BC/benzoyltrifluoroacetone	Phosphors and UV to Visible energy converting devices	Improvement of the luminescence characteristics	Caiut et al. [115]
BC/ AgNPs/ lginate-molybdenum trioxide nanoparticles (MoO₃NPs)	Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) gas sensor	Successfully detected H₂S gas	Sukhavattanakul et al. [102]
BC/chitosan biocomposites	Wound dressing	The improved proliferation and fibroblast adhesion	Kim et al. [116]
BC/Lipase nanocomposites	Bioactive paper for developing a simple, handheld, and disposable devices; industrials bio- processes of detergents and food industry and biomedicine	Specific activity was higher for BC/ Lipase suspension (4.2 U/mg), improved thermal stability, reusability, and durability	Buruaga-Ramiro [78]
BC/ SOD (Procel-Super) and poviargol (Procel-PA) biocomposites	Skin regeneration scaffold; Membranes for skin tissue regeneration	Highly transparency, antibacterial activity	Legeza et al. [117]
BC/ PVOH	The food industry, food packaging	Improved mechanical properties; UV-light barrier properties; Reduce WVP and porosity value	Cazón et al. [3]
BC/ PHB	Food packaging applications	low dispersion of BC in the matrix; increased crystallinity of the incubated samples; low interfacial adhesion	Seoane et al. [99]
BC/ciprofloxacin biocomposites	Contact lens for better tissue regeneration, enhance the recovery of ocular burns, replacement for antibiotics eye drops, wound dressing after eye surgery or protection against bacteria.	No mutagenicity, genotoxicity and cytotoxicity effects	Messaddeq et al. [118]
BC/ polyvinyl alcohol coated biochar nanosilver biocomposites	Drinking water treatment	BC was uniformly mixed into the PVA gel; PVA/BC/C-Ag composite membranes exhibited excellent antibacterial activity; good reusability	Zhang et al. [100]
BC/polycaprolactone biocomposites	Tissue substitutes in rabbit cornea	High transparency and mechanical properties	Sepúlveda et al. [113]
BC/polyvinyl alcohol biocomposites	BC gloves	Skin cell support and fabrication of optimal moist condition	Osorio et al. [119]
BC/ cAgNP	Wound dressing	High cytocompatibility; high moisture content and; good level of transparency; broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity along with antioxidant properties	Gupta et al. [103]
Fabrication of BC and BC-based composites under agitation/shaking culture method
BC	Sewage treatment; Immobilized reaction; Adsorption of Pb²⁺ bio-separation and bovine serum albumin	Porous and loose structure, BC adhering to each other; diameter of composites with a size range of 0.5–6 mm	Zhu, Jia, Yang, et al. [120]
	The production of immobilized glucoamylase was supported by BC spheres for industrial applications usage	BC spheres were produced with various range of sizes such as 0.5–1.5, 2–3, and 4–5 mm; Large functional group, as well as great surface area to connect with enzymes, resulted to the higher activity of small spheres.	Wu & Li, [121]
	For good viability and adhesion on the surface of the material	Sphere formation was affected by temperature; solid structure formed; diameter of composites with a size range of 2–8 mm formed	Hu et al. [122]
	Fermentation	IR: 6.52–3.85; Crystallinity: 81.43–84.35 %; Flocky asterisk-like; diameter of composites with a size range of 5–10 mm,	Bi et al. [24]
	Food, healthcare, and materials applications	Diameter is less than 1–8 mm at 150 rpm; Form solid structure however the central region is not layered; Layer spacing 10 μm (150 rpm) and 20 μm (125 rpm)	Hu & Catchmark [123]
	Good production yield	Thinner microfibrils structure; IR: 4.48; crystallinity: 84%; large and unique spheres; diameter of composites with a size range of 5–10 mm	Czaja et al. [124]
	High-efficiency lipase-immobilization system for large-scale industrial hydrolysis of fats and oils Suitable for enzymatic immobilization.	High hydrolytic activity; High operational activity; Lipase immobilized BC sphere; Size of diameter between 3–9 mm.	Cai et al. [125]
	Pectin and xyloglucan can be used to enhance cellulose growth and cellulose assembly.	Xyloglucan: Layered structure, densely packed cellulose bundles with the layered structure were formed; Central core is not obviously seen; diameter of composites with a size range of 4–5 mm; aster-likePectin: Densely packed cellulose bundles with layered structure; diameter of composites with a size range of 5–6 mm; aster-like Xylan: Pore structure of cellulose bundles with a few tails formed on the surface of sphere; diameter of composites with a size range of 7–8 mm; layered structure Arabinogalactan: Cellulose linkage between layered structure; diameter of composites with a size range of 4–6 mm; Sphere	Gu & Catchmark [126]
BC/ schizophyllan (SPG) biopolymers	Anti-wrinkle dressing masks, wound healing and absorption materials	Mechanical, swelling and antibacterial properties were improved; moderate antibacterial activity	Hamedi et al. [101]
BC/CNT biocomposites	--	BC: IR index 2.23, crystallinity 67.2%; snow like structuredBC/CNT composites: IR index 2.56; crystallinity 76.2%, the diameter of composites with a size range of 2–5 mm, rice-like structured	Yan et al. [127]
BC/Fe₃O₄ biocomposites	Elution: Mn²⁺ > Pb²⁺ > Cr³⁺ Superparamagnetic Adsorption: Pb²⁺ > Mn²⁺ > Cr³⁺	Iron(II,III) oxide (Fe₃O₄) particles with a size of 15 nm were distributed uniformly in spheres The diameter of composites with a size range of 3–5 mm	Zhu, Jia, Wan, et al. [128]
BC/GO biocomposites	Superabsorbent for water environmental protection	Superior absorption capacity; Interconnected structure with a honeycomb-like surface pattern; diameter of composites with a size range of 3–7 mm	Hu [129]