Table 1.
Ghrelin response to short-term (< 60 min], long-term (≥ 60 min), and very long-term (≥ 90 min) acute exercise
| Study, year [reference] | Participants, number, characteristics (age in years) | Exercise, type, intensity, duration | Ghrelin form, method (intra-assay CV) | Mean ghrelin change (P) | GH change |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Short-term exercise with unchanged circulating ghrelin | |||||
| Dall et al. 2002 [46] | 8 healthy adult males (40.8 ± 2.9) | Submaximal aerobic exercise, 45 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (< 5%) | DNM (NS) | Increased |
| 8 adult males with GH deficiency (41 ± 4.7) | DNM (NS) | Unchanged | |||
| Kraemer et al. 2004 [47] | 6 well-trained male individuals, VO2max, > 52 mL·kg−1·min−1 (27.7 ± 3.20) | Run, 10 min at 60%, 10 min at 75%, 5 min at 90% and 2 min at 100% of VO2max, 27 min | Ghrelin, RIA (7.07%) | DNM (NS) | Increased |
| Zoladz et al. 2005 [48] | 8 healthy young males (23.0 ± 0.50) | Incremental exercise (30 W every 2 min), until 60% of VO2max, 12 min | Ghrelin, RIA (5–10%) | DNM (NS) | Increased |
| Jürimäe et al. 2007 [49] | 9 elite young male rowers (20.1 ± 3.7) | Sculling exercises, 15 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (< 10%) | ||
| Above the individual anaerobic threshold | + 7.5% (NS) | Increased | |||
| Below the individual anaerobic threshold | + 3.8% (NS) | Increased | |||
| Erdmann et al. 2007 [50] | 7 healthy young individuals (5 females, 2 males) (24.4 ± 0.6) | Cycling exercise, 100 W, 30 min | Ghrelin, RIA (10%) | − 2.3% (NS) | NM |
| Marzullo et al. 2008 [51] | 8 obese males | Incremental exercise, 20 W every 4 min until exhaustion | Total ghrelin, RIA (4.4–10%) | − 4.1% (NS) | Increased |
| 8 lean males | − 21% (NS) | Increased | |||
| Unick et al. 2010 [52] | 19 overweight/obese young adult females (20–37) | Walking exercise, 70–75% of HRmax, 42 ± 8 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (3.9%) | DNM (NS) | NM |
| Thomas et al. 2012 [53] | 19 young males (21.3 ± 2.3) | Resistance exercise, 6 exercises, 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 85–95% and 10 RM with 120- and + 90-s rest periods | Total ghrelin, RIA (< 5%) | NM | |
| 9 with normal weight | DNM (NS) | ||||
| 5 with obesity class 1 (30 < BMI < 34.9) | DNM (NS) | ||||
| 5 with obesity class 2 (BMI > 35) | DNM (NS) | ||||
| Crabtree and Blannin. 2015 [54] | 16 overweight individuals (6 females, 10 males) (40–60) | Treadmill walking, 60% of VO2max, 45 min (cold trial and neutral trial) | Total ghrelin, RIA (4.5%) | DNM (NS) in both cold and neutral trials | NM |
| Acyl ghrelin, RIA (5.5%) | DNM (NS) in neutral trial | NM | |||
| Moraes et al. 2015 [55] | 16 hemodialysis patients (11 females, 5 males) (44.4 ± 14.6) | Resistance exercise, 60% of 1 RM, 30 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA, | − 0.9% (NS) | NM |
| Larsen et al. 2017 [56] | 12 inactive overweight males (48 ± 5) |
Strength exercise, 10 × 8 leg extensions, 75% of 1 RM, 50 min Combined aerobic (75% of VO2peak)/strength exercises, 50%/50%, 50 min |
Acyl ghrelin, multiplex immunoassay |
DNM (NS) DNM (NS) |
NM |
| Ouerghi et al. 2019 [57] | 7 inactive overweight middle-aged males (36.4 ± 4.35) | Moderate exercise: 60% of PAP, 20 min | Ghrelin, RIA (6%) | DNM (NS) | Increased |
| Heavy exercise: 80% of PAP, 20 min | DNM (NS) | Increased | |||
| Beer et al. 2020 [58] | 40 inactive healthy individuals (30 females, 10 males) (24.5 ± 7.2) | Moderate-intensity continuous exercise, 60% of VO2peak, 30 min | Active ghrelin (5.2%) | − 14.5 (NS) | NM |
| Short-term exercise with decreased circulating ghrelin | |||||
| Toshinai et al. 2007 [59] | 5 inactive normal weight healthy males VO2max: 43.8 ± 0.8 ml kg−1 min−1 (26 ± 0.5) | Incremental endurance exercise at different intensities | Ghrelin, RIA | ||
| 10 min below lactate threshold | − 15% (P < 0.05) | Unchanged | |||
| 10 min at lactate threshold | − 16% (P < 0.05) | Increased | |||
| 10 min at onset of lactate blood accumulation | − 25% (P < 0.001) | Increased | |||
| 10 min above onset of lactate blood accumulation | − 35% (P < 0.001) | Increased | |||
| Malkova et al. 2008 [60] | 11 healthy, recreationally active males VO2peak, 41.8 ± 7.2 mL·kg−1·min−1 (23.8 ± 5.8) | Ergometer cycling, 90% of lactate threshold, 57 ± 3 min | Ghrelin, EIA (< 10%) | DNM (< 0.05) | NM |
| Balaguera et al. 2011 [61] | 10 active young healthy males, VO2peak, 58 ± 7.3 ml kg−1 min−1 (19–23) | Treadmill running, 70% of VO2peak, 45 min | Acyl ghrelin | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Becker et al. 2012 [62] |
82 untrained children and young adults VO2max, 55 ± 2.6 mL·kg−1·min−1 (6–30) |
Cycling exercise, 70% of VO2max, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA | DNM (P < 0.04) | NM |
| Sim et al. 2014 [63] | 17 inactive overweight males, VO2peak: 39.2 ± 4.8 ml kg−1 min−1 (30 ± 8) | High-intensity intermittent exercise, 15 s at 170% of VO2peak/60 s at 32% of VO2peak, 30 min, | Active ghrelin, multiplex immunoassay | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Gholipour et al. 2014 [64] | 10 obese untrained young males (20.6 ± 1.4) | Intermittent treadmill exercise: 10 min, 10 min, 5 min, and 2 min at 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80% of VO2max, respectively, separated by 3 min at 3 km/h | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (6.7%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | Increased |
| Metcalfe et al. 2015 [65] | 8 untrained normal weight young males, VO2max, 39 ± 10 mL·kg−1·min−1 (21 ± 2) | Continuous aerobic exercise, 50% of VO2max, 30 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Intermittent exercise, 10 min cycling at 60 W interspersed with two “all out” sprits, 30 min | DNM (P < 0.05) | ||||
| Howe et al. 2016 [66] | 15 endurance-trained females, VO2max, 55 ± 4.3 mL·kg−1·min−1 (18–40) | Treadmill running, 85% of VO2max, 500 kcal, 33 ± 5.6 min | Acyl ghrelin, RIA | − 22% (P = 0.01) | NM |
| Holliday and Blanni. 2017 [67] | 8 overweight individuals (4 males, 4 females) (34 ± 12) | Intermittent exercise: 4 × 30 s “flat-out” ergometer cycling interspersed with 3 min of rest | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (3.8%) | − 67% (P = 0.03) | NM |
| Larsen et al. 2017 [56] | 12 inactive overweight males (48 ± 5) | Ergometer cycling, 75% of VO2peak, 50 min | Acyl ghrelin, multiplex immunoassay | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Hunschede et al. 2018 [68] | 15 normal weight young males (16.1 ± 0.50) | High-intensity exercise, 75% of VO2peak, 30 min | Active ghrelin, EIA (< 4%) | DNM (< 0.001) | NM |
| Matos et al. 2020 [69] | 10 untrained obese males (27.6 ± 1.8) | High-intensity interval exercise, 10 × 60 s intervals at 90% of HRmax | Total ghrelin, EIA | − 14.1% (P = 0.07) | NM |
| Moderate-intensity continuous exercise at 50–70% of HRmax, 20 min | − 9.6% (P = 0.07) | NM | |||
| Leow et al. 2020 [70] | 23 physically active young individuals (10 females, 13 males) (23.6 ± 4.6) | Moderate-intensity treadmill running, 70% of VO2peak, 30 min | Active ghrelin, | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Beer et al. 2020 [58] | 40 inactive individuals (30 females, 10 males) VO2peak, 26 ± 4.9 mL·kg−1·min−1 (24.5 ± 7.2) | Sprint interval t exercise, alternating 15 s at 170% of VO2peak and 60 s at 32% of VO2peak, 30 min | Active ghrelin (5.2%) | − 42.8 (P < 0.001) | NM |
| Short-term exercise with increased circulating ghrelin | |||||
| Erdmann et al. 2007 [50] | 7 healthy individuals (5 females and 2 males) (24.4 ± 0.6) | Cycling exercise, 50 W, 30 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (4%) | + 8.8% (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Jürimäe et al. 2007 [71] | 8 elite young male rowers | Maximal rowing ergometer test, 81% of VO2max, 20 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (< 10%) | + 24.4% (P < 0.05) | Unchanged |
| Crabtree and Blannin. 2015 [54] | 16 overweight individuals (6 females, 10 males) (40–60) | Treadmill walking, 60% of VO2max, 45 min (cold trial) | Acyl ghrelin, RIA (5.55%) | DNM (P < 0.05) in cold trial | NM |
| Long-term exercise with unchanged circulating ghrelin | |||||
| Burns et al. 2007 [72] | 18 healthy trained subjects (9 females, 9 males), VO2peak 57 ± 2 mL·kg−1·min−1 (24.8 ± 0.9) | Treadmill run,73.5% of VO2max, 60 min | Total ghrelin, EIA | Females, + 1.8% (NS) | NM |
| Males, + 2.4% (NS) | |||||
| Martins et al. 2007 [73] | 12 healthy, normal-weight individuals (6 females, 6 males) (25.9 ± 4.6) | Ergometer intermittent cycling, 65% of HRmax, 60 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (< 10%) | DNM (NS) | NM |
| Sartorio et al. 2008 [74] | 18 elite female athletes (25 ± 6.70) | Exercise session, 80% of VO2max, 60–90 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (6%) | − 18.9% (NS) | Increased |
| Hagobian et al. (2009] [75] | 9 overweight young and young adult males, VO2peak, 44.9 ± 4.8 (26.8 ± 11.8) | Treadmill running, 50–65% of VO2peak until 30% of total daily energy expenditure, 83 ± 8 min | Acyl ghrelin, RIA | DNM (NS) | NM |
| King et al. 2010 [76] | 14 healthy young males, VO2max, 56 ± 1.8 mL·kg−1·min−1 (21.9 ± 0.5) | Submaximal treadmill walking, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (7.8%) | DNM (NS) | NM |
| King et al. 2011 [77] | 12 healthy physically active males (23.4 ± 1.0) | Treadmill running, 70% of VO2max, 90 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (7.8%) | DNM (NS) | NM |
| Shiiya et al. 2011 [78] | 9 untrained healthy males, VO2max, 44.8 ± 1.4 mL·kg−1·min−1 (25.2 ± 0.5) | Cycling exercise, 50% of VO2max, 60 min | Total ghrelin, EIA (6.5%) | DNM (NS) | Increased |
| Des-acyl ghrelin, EIA (9.8%) | DNM (NS) | Increased | |||
| Plinta et al. 2012 [79] | 50 professional female basketball or handball players (21 ± 2.4) | Moderate aerobic training, 120 min (pulse 140–160/min) | Total ghrelin, EIA (6.0%) | − 1.4 (NS) | NM |
| Intensive aerobic training, 90 min (pulse > 170/min) | + 13.1 (NS) | NM | |||
| Heden et al. 2013 [80] | 14 obese mildly active females, V̇O2peak, 49 ± 7.3 mL·kg−1·min−1 (25.1 ± 5) | Treadmill walking, 55–60% of VO2peak, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, multiplex immunoassay (4.62%) | DNM (NS) | NM |
| Tiryaki-Sonmez et al. 2013 [81] | 9 untrained overweight females (22.8 ± 1.38) | Treadmill exercise, 50% of VO2max, 60 min | Des-acyl ghrelin, EIA (6.5%) | DNM (NS) | NM |
| Douglas and Blannin. 2017 [82] | 22 healthy lean females (37.5 ± 15.2) | Treadmill exercise, 60% of VO2peak, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (5.2%) | DNM (NS) | NM |
| 25 overweight/obese females (45 ± 12.4) | Des-acyl ghrelin, EIA (4.8%) | DNM (NS) | |||
| Laursen et al. 2017 [83] | 11 recreationally trained males, VO2peak, 55 ± 12 mL·kg−1·min−1 (25 ± 4) | Cycling exercise, 60% W maximum, 60 min | Total ghrelin, EIA | DNM (NS) | NM |
| Long-term exercise with decreased circulating ghrelin | |||||
| Broom et al. 2007 [84] | 9 trained males, VO2max, 63.3 ± 2 mL·kg−1·min−1 (21.2 ± 0.7) | Running exercise, 72% of VO2max, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (6.6%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Broom et al. 2009 [85] | 11 healthy male students (21.1 ± 0.3) | Aerobic exercise, 70% of VO2max, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (4.8%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Shiiya et al. 2011 [78] | 9 untrained healthy males, VO2max, 44.8 ± 1.4 mL·kg−1·min−1 (25.2 ± 0.5) | Cycling exercise, 50% of VO2max, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (6.5%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | Increased |
| King et al. 2011 [86] | 14 healthy normal weight males (22.0 ± 0.5) | Intermittent swimming (6 × 7 min swimming at moderate intensity interspersed with 3 min of rest), 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (6.4%) | DNM (P < 0.001 | NM |
| Heden et al. 2013 [80] | 14 normal-weight low-active females, VO2peak, 50 ± 10 mL·kg−1·min−1 (26 ± 6) | Treadmill walking, 55–60% of VO2peak, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, multiplex immunoassay (4.62%) | − 18% (P < 0.03) | NM |
| Tiryaki-Sonmez et al. 2013 [81] | 9 untrained overweight females (22.8 ± 1.38) | Treadmill exercise, 50% of VO2max, 60 min followed by 60 min of rest | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (6.5%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Wasse et al. 2013 [87] | 12 healthy active males (22.7 ± 2.3) | Running exercise, 70% of VO2max, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (7.2%) | DNM (P < 0.005) | NM |
| Cycling exercise, 70% of VO2max, 60 min | DNM (P < 0.001) | NM | |||
| Deighton et al. 2013 [88] | 12 untrained healthy males, VO2max, 46.36 ± 10 mL·kg−1·min−1 (20–26) | Ergometer cycling, 65% of VO2max, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (5.7%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Interval exercise, 6 × 30 s supramaximal sprint cycling separated by 4-min recovery periods, 30 min | DNM (P < 0.001) | ||||
| Kawano et al. 2013 [89] | 15 normal weight healthy young males, VO2max, 47.0 ± 66.2 mL·kg−1·min−1 (22–27) | Rope skipping, 3 × 10 min, 64.8–66.9% of VO2max with 5-min interval rest, 120 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (8.4%) | DNM(P < 0.001) | NM |
| Cycling 3 × 10 min at 63.9–67.5% of VO2max with 5 min interval rest, 120 min | DNM(P < 0.001) | ||||
| Dorling et al. 2019 [90] | 24 males with A or T allele for the obesity linked FTO rs9939609 polymorphism (21 ± 3.55) | Running exercise, 70% of VO2max, 60 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (4.3%) | DNM (P < 0.05) for both low- and high-risk alleles | NM |
| Very long-term exercise with decreased circulating ghrelin | |||||
| Ghanbari-Niaki. 2006 [91] | 14 male students with recreational weight training (20.5 ± 0.5) | Resistance training (3 circuits of 10 exercises with 8–12 repetitions at 60% of 1 RM), 180 min | Total ghrelin, RIA | DNM (P < 0.05) | Increased |
| Sartorio et al. 2008 [74] | 19 elite athletes of different disciplines (25 ± 6.7) | Aerobic exercise, 80% of VO2max, 60–90 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (6%) | − 20% (P < 0.05) | Increased |
| Broom et al. 2009 [85] | 11 healthy male students (21.1 ± 0.3) | Resistance exercise: 10 different weight-lifting exercises, 80% of 12 RM, 90 min | Acyl ghrelin, ELISA (4.8%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| King et al. 2010 [92] | 9 non obese healthy males (18–27) | Treadmill running, 70% of VO2peak, 90 min | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (7.8%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Vatansever-Ozen et al. 2011 [93] | 10 elite male soccer players, VO2max, 62.7 ± 5.0 mL·kg−1·min−1 (20.1 ± 0.17) | Treadmill at 50% (105 min) + 70% (last 15 min) of VO2max | Acyl ghrelin, EIA (5%) | DNM (P < 0.05) | NM |
| Very long-term exercise with increased circulating ghrelin | |||||
| Christ et al. 2006 [94] | 11 male endurance athletes, VO2max ≥ 60 mL·kg−1·min−1 (31.4 ± 1.7) | Cycling exercise, 50% of maximal power, 180 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (5.3%) | DNM (P < 0.01) in both low-fat and high-fat diet | Increased |
| Hagobian et al. (2009] [75] | 9 overweight young and young adult females, VO2peak, 35 ± 5.2 mL·kg−1·min−1 (23.3 ± 8) | Treadmill running, 50–65% of VO2peak until 30% of total daily energy expenditure, 88 ± 5 min | Acyl ghrelin, RIA | NM | |
| In deficit condition | + 32% (P = 0.04) | ||||
| In balance condition | + 25% (P = 0.05) | ||||
| Jürimäe et al. 2009 [95] | 9 national level male rowers (20.1 ± 1.5) | Prolonged rowing training session, 80.2 ± 1.6% of HR turn point, 120 min | Total ghrelin, RIA (< 10%) | + 12.2% (P < 0.05) | Increased |
| Russel et al. 2009 [96] | 21 healthy athletes (10 females, 10 males), VO2max ≥ 50 mL·kg−1·min−1 (18–44) | Running at 62 ± 5% of VO2max, 90 min, followed by a 10-km time trial on a treadmill | Total ghrelin, RIA | + 16% (o < 0.001) | Increased |
| Saghebjoo et al. 2013 [97] | 10 male students (22.0 ± 1.32) | Circuit resistance exercise, 80% of 1 RM, 50–55 min | Acyl ghrelin, ELISA (6.2%) | + 81.6% (P < 0.05) | Unchanged |
CV coefficient of variation, DNM data not mentioned, EIA enzyme immunoassay, GH growth hormone, HR heart rate, HRmax maximum heart rate, NM not measured, NS not significant, PAP peak aerobic power, RIA radioimmunoassay, RM repetition maximum, TV training volume, VO2max maximal oxygen uptake, VO2peak peak of oxygen consumption