Table 3.
Comparison of exercise characteristics, thermoregulatory responses and subjective outcomes across sport disciplines
| Endurance-trained athletes (N = 27) | Mixed-trained athletes (N = 31) | Power-trained athletes (N = 12) | Skill-trained athletes (N = 35) | p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Exercise characteristics | |||||
| Time to exhaustion (min) | |||||
| Control (min) | 64 ± 13 | 57 ± 14 | 59 ± 6 | 60 ± 16 | 0.19 |
| Tokyo (min) | 47 ± 9 | 40 ± 10 | 44 ± 5 | 45 ± 11 | 0.05 |
| Δ (min) | 18 ± 9 | 17 ± 9 | 15 ± 5 | 14 ± 9 | 0.39 |
| Δ time to exhaustion (%) | 27 ± 9 | 29 ± 11 | 25 ± 7 | 23 ± 12 | 0.17 |
| Peak power output (W) | |||||
| Control (W) | 287 ± 50b,c,d | 243 ± 50a,d | 239 ± 51a,d | 171 ± 31a,b,c | < 0.001* |
| Tokyo (W) | 238 ± 46b,d | 202 ± 44a,d | 202 ± 44d | 148 ± 30a,b,c | < 0.001* |
| Δ (W) | 49 ± 19d | 41 ± 21d | 37 ± 15 | 24 ± 12a,b | < 0.001* |
| Δ peak power output (%) | 17 ± 7 | 17 ± 8 | 16 ± 5 | 14 ± 7 | 0.24 |
| Normalized peak power output (W/kg) | |||||
| Control (W/kg) | 4.4 ± 0.5b,c,d | 3.0 ± 0.4a,d | 3.0 ± 0.4a,d | 2.2 ± 0.5a,b,c | < 0.001* |
| Tokyo (W/kg) | 3.7 ± 0.5b,c,d | 2.5 ± 0.3a,d | 2.6 ± 0.3a,d | 1.9 ± 0.4a,b,c | < 0.001* |
| Δ (W/kg) | 0.8 ± 0.3b,c,d | 0.5 ± 0.3a,d | 0.5 ± 0.2a | 0.3 ± 0.2a,b | < 0.001* |
| Δ normalized peak power output (%) | 17 ± 7 | 17 ± 8 | 16 ± 5 | 14 ± 7 | 0.24 |
| Resting HR (bpm) | |||||
| Control (bpm) | 72 ± 15 | 71 ± 9c | 82 ± 11b | 77 ± 11 | 0.002* |
| Tokyo (bpm) | 75 ± 14c,d | 78 ± 10c | 95 ± 16a,b | 85 ± 13a | < 0.001* |
| Δ (bpm) | 3 ± 17 | 7 ± 11 | 12 ± 12 | 9 ± 9 | 0.14 |
| Exercise-induced increase in HR (bpm) | |||||
| Control (bpm) | 112 ± 15d | 103 ± 11 | 106 ± 11 | 100 ± 13a | 0.007* |
| Tokyo (bpm) | 111 ± 12b,c,d | 100 ± 13a | 97 ± 18a | 95 ± 14a | < 0.001* |
| Δ (bpm) | 1 ± 18 | 3 ± 13 | 9 ± 14 | 5 ± 10 | 0.33 |
| Peak HR (bpm) | |||||
| Control (bpm) | 183 ± 10b | 174 ± 9a,c | 188 ± 6b,d | 177 ± 13c | < 0.001* |
| Tokyo (bpm) | 186 ± 9b | 178 ± 12a,c | 192 ± 9b,d | 180 ± 11c | 0.001* |
| Δ (bpm) | 3 ± 5 | 4 ± 8 | 4 ± 6 | 4 ± 8 | 0.85 |
| Thermoregulatory responses | |||||
| Resting Tgi (°C) | |||||
| Control (°C) | 37.0 ± 0.4c | 37.0 ± 0.3c | 37.4 ± 0.3a,b | 37.2 ± 0.3 | 0.006* |
| Tokyo (°C) | 37.1 ± 0.3 | 37.0 ± 0.5 | 37.3 ± 0.3 | 37.2 ± 0.5 | 0.13 |
| Δ (°C) | 0.0 ± 0.3 | 0.1 ± 0.4 | 0.1 ± 0.2 | 0.0 ± 0.5 | 0.62 |
| Exercise-induced increase in Tgi (°C) | |||||
| Control (°C) | 1.7 ± 0.5d | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.3 | 1.4 ± 0.4a | 0.048* |
| Tokyo (°C) | 2.3 ± 0.6b,d | 1.7 ± 0.6a | 1.8 ± 0.6 | 1.6 ± 0.5a | < 0.001* |
| Δ (°C) | 0.6 ± 0.4d | 0.2 ± 0.5 | 0.3 ± 0.6 | 0.2 ± 0.6a | 0.020* |
| Exercise-induced increase rate in Tgi (°C/h) | |||||
| Control (°C/h) | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.3 | 1.5 ± 0.4 | 0.23 |
| Tokyo (°C/h) | 3.0 ± 0.9d | 2.6 ± 0.6 | 2.5 ± 0.6 | 2.1 ± 0.5a | < 0.001* |
| Δ (°C/h) | 1.4 ± 0.6b,d | 0.9 ± 0.6a | 0.9 ± 0.6 | 0.7 ± 0.6a | < 0.001* |
| Peak exercise Tgi (°C) | |||||
| Control (°C) | 38.8 ± 0.4 | 38.6 ± 0.5 | 38.9 ± 0.3 | 38.6 ± 0.4 | 0.10 |
| Tokyo (°C) | 39.4 ± 0.5b,d | 38.6 ± 0.5a | 39.1 ± 0.5 | 38.8 ± 0.5a | < 0.001* |
| Δ (°C) | 0.6 ± 0.4b,d | 0.1 ± 0.4a | 0.2 ± 0.4 | 0.2 ± 0.4a | < 0.001* |
| Resting Tsk (°C) | |||||
| Control (°C) | 30.5 ± 0.7 | 30.4 ± 0.8 | 30.3 ± 0.6 | 30.6 ± 0.7 | 0.6 |
| Tokyo (°C) | 33.7 ± 0.6 | 33.8 ± 0.7 | 33.8 ± 0.6 | 33.3 ± 0.8 | 0.038* |
| Δ (°C) | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 3.4 ± 0.9d | 3.5 ± 0.7d | 2.7 ± 0.7b,c | 0.004* |
| Exercise-induced increase in Tsk (°C) | |||||
| Control (°C) | 2.4 ± 0.8b,d | 1.6 ± 0.7a | 1.7 ± 1.3 | 1.4 ± 0.8a | < 0.001* |
| Tokyo (°C) | 3.6 ± 0.7b | 2.8 ± 0.7a | 3.0 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 0.004* |
| Δ (°C) | 1.1 ± 0.8 | 1.2 ± 1.0 | 1.2 ± 1.0 | 1.8 ± 1.0 | 0.046* |
| Peak exercise Tsk (°C) | |||||
| Control (°C) | 33.0 ± 1.0b,d | 32.0 ± 1.0a | 32.1 ± 1.5 | 32.0 ± 0.9a | 0.001* |
| Tokyo (°C) | 37.3 ± 0.6b,d | 36.6 ± 0.5a | 36.8 ± 0.8 | 36.4 ± 0.5a | < 0.001* |
| Δ (°C) | 4.3 ± 1.0 | 4.5 ± 1.0 | 4.7 ± 1.0 | 4.5 ± 0.9 | 0.62 |
| Whole body sweat rate (WBSR) | |||||
| WBSR (L/h) | |||||
| Control (L/h) | 0.9 ± 0.3d | 0.9 ± 0.4d | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 0.7 ± 0.2a,b | 0.001* |
| Tokyo (L/h) | 1.6 ± 0.6c,d | 1.7 ± 0.6c,d | 1.1 ± 0.3a,b | 1.0 ± 0.3a,b | < 0.001* |
| Δ (L/h) | 0.6 ± 0.3d | 0.8 ± 0.4c,d | 0.3 ± 0.2b | 0.3 ± 0.3a,b | < 0.001* |
| Dehydration (%) | |||||
| Control (%) | 1.4 ± 0.3b,c,d | 1.0 ± 0.4a | 1.0 ± 0.3a | 0.8 ± 0.3 a | < 0.001* |
| Tokyo (%) | 1.8 ± 0.5b,c,d | 1.3 ± 0.3a,d | 1.0 ± 0.3a | 0.9 ± 0.3a,b | < 0.001* |
| Δ (%) | 0.3 ± 0.4d | 0.3 ± 0.3d | 0.1 ± 0.3 | 0.1 ± 0.3a.b | < 0.001* |
| Subjective measures | |||||
| Resting thermal sensation (au) | |||||
| Control (au) | − 2 (− 3 to 0) | − 2 (− 3 to 0) | − 2 (− 3 to 1) | − 1 (− 3 to 0) | 0.14 |
| Tokyo (au) | 1 (0–3) | 1 (0–2) | 2 (0–3) | 1 (0–2) | 0.80 |
| Peak thermal sensation (au) | |||||
| Control (au) | 3 (0–3) | 3 (1–3) | 3 (2–3) | 3 (1–3) | 0.20 |
| Tokyo (au) | 3 (3–3) | 3 (2–3) | 3 (3–3) | 3 (2–3) | 0.46 |
| Resting thermal comfort (au) | |||||
| Control (au) | 2 (1–3) | 2 (1–3) | 2 (1–4) | 2 (1–3) | 0.25 |
| Tokyo (au) | 1 (1–3)b,d | 1 (1–2)a,c | 2 (1–3)b,d | 1 (1–3)a,c | 0.046* |
| Peak thermal comfort (au) | |||||
| Control (au) | 4 (1–4) | 4 (1–4) | 4 (2–4) | 3 (2–4) | 0.326 |
| Tokyo (au) | 4 (3–4)c | 4 (3–4)c | 4 (4–4)a,b | 4 (2–4) | 0.031* |
| Resting RPE (au) | |||||
| Control (au) | 6 (6–7) | 6 (6–10) | 6 (6–6) | 6 (6–10) | 0.22 |
| Tokyo (au) | 6 (6–8) | 6 (6–8) | 6 (6–6) | 6 (6–10) | 0.20 |
| Peak RPE (au) | |||||
| Control (au) | 20 (16–20) | 20 (18–20) | 20 (18–20) | 20 (14–20) | 0.29 |
| Tokyo (au) | 20 (12–20) | 20 (17–20) | 20 (18–20) | 20 (15–20) | 0.28 |
Data are presented as mean ± SD, n (%), or median (interquartile range)
Δ delta control versus Tokyo condition, au arbitrary units, bpm beats per minute, HR heart rate, RPE rating of perceived exertion, Tgi gastrointestinal temperature, Tsk skin temperature, W watt, WBSR whole body sweat rate
*p < 0.05. Significantly different from (a) endurance-trained athletes, (b) mixed-trained athletes, (c) power-trained athletes, (d) skill-trained athletes