Table 1.
Maternal characteristics of women with and without gestational diabetes mellitus (N = 1,981).
| SGA mothers with GDM* (n = 383) | SGA mothers without GDM (n = 1,598) | RR (95% CI) | p Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, mean (SD), years | 31.2 (4.7) | 29.8 (4.3) | <0.01 | |
| Race, No. (%) | 1.16 [0.66–2.04] | 0.61 | ||
| Han nationality | 368 (96.1) | 1,526 (95.5) | ||
| other nationalities | 15 (3.9) | 72 (4.5) | ||
| Residence, No. (%) | 0.87 [0.61–1.24] | 0.44 | ||
| Rural | 41 (10.7) | 194 (12.1) | ||
| Urban | 342 (89.3) | 1,404 (87.9) | ||
| Height, mean (SD), cm, | 157.7 (4.7) | 158.2 (5.3) | 0.09 | |
| Gravidity, mean (SD) | 2.0 (1.3) | 1.6 (0.9) | <0.01 | |
| Parity (primiparous), No. (%) | 256 (66.8) | 1,056 (66.1) | 1.04 [0.82–1.31] | 0.78 |
| Pre-pregnancy weight, mean (SD), kg | 51.6 (7.8) | 51.1 (7.0) | 0.01 | |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI, mean (SD), kg/m2 | 20.8 (2.8) | 20.0 (2.9) | <0.01 | |
| Pre-partum weight, mean (SD), kg | 63.0 (8.3) | 62.5 (7.9) | 0.38 | |
| Pre-partum BMI,† mean (SD), kg/m2 | 25.1 (3.7) | 24.7 (4.1) | 0.11 | |
| Increased weight during pregnancy, mean (SD), kg | 11.8 (4.6) | 12.8 (3.9) | <0.01 | |
| Complications during pregnancy | ||||
| Anemia, No, (%) | 29 (7.6) | 155 (9.7) | 0.76 [0.51–1.15] | 0.20 |
| Abnormal placenta,‡ No, (%) | 7 (1.8) | 26 (1.6) | 1.13 [0.49–2.61] | 0.78 |
| Chorioamnionitis, No, (%) | 4 (1.0) | 24 (1.5) | 0.69 [0.24–2.01] | 0.50 |
| Drug or illicit use, No, (%) | 1 (0.3) | 3 (0.2) | 1.39 [0.14–13.42] | 0.77 |
| Tobacco use, No, (%) | 2 (0.5) | 13 (0.8) | 0.64 [0.14–2.85] | 0.56 |
| Hypothyroidism, No, (%) | 11 (2.9) | 56 (3.5) | 0.81 [0.42–1.57] | 0.54 |
| ICP, No, (%) | 2 (0.5) | 20 (1.3) | 0.41 [0.10–1.78] | 0.22 |
| Intrauterine distress, No, (%) | 9 (2.3) | 34 (2.1) | 1.11 [0.53–2.33] | 0.79 |
| Maternal heart diseases,§ No, (%) | 1 (0.3) | 5 (0.3) | 0.83 [0.10–7.16] | 0.89 |
| Oligohydramnios,|| No, (%) | 10 (2.6) | 129 (8.1) | 0.31 [0.16–0.59] | <0.01 |
| Pregnancy-induced hypertension, No, (%) | 22 (5.7) | 65 (4.1) | 1.44 [0.88–2.36] | 0.15 |
| Preeclampsia No, (%) | 20 (5.2) | 92 (5.8) | 0.90 [0.55–1.48] | 0.68 |
| Placenta previa, No, (%) | 7 (1.8) | 31 (1.9) | 0.94 [0.41–2.15] | 0.89 |
| Placental abruption, No, (%) | 4 (1.0) | 30 (1.9) | 0.55 [0.19–1.58] | 0.26 |
| Placental insufficiency,¶ No, (%) | 23 (6.0) | 152 (9.5) | 0.61 [0.39–0.96] | 0.03 |
| Renal diseases,# No, (%) | 1 (0.3) | 8 (0.5) | 0.52 [0.07–4.17] | 0.53 |
| Single umbilical artery, No, (%) | 2 (0.5) | 4 (0.3) | 2.01 [0.38–11.46] | 0.38 |
| Uterine malformation,** No, (%) | 2 (0.5) | 11 (0.7) | 0.76 [0.17–3.43] | 0.72 |
| Delivery | ||||
| Breech, No, (%) | 16 (4.2) | 52 (3.3) | 1.30 [0.73–2.30] | 0.37 |
| Vaginal, No, (%) | 307 (80.2) | 1,022 (64.0) | 2.28 [1.74–2.99] | <0.01 |
| Failed forceps, No, (%) | 10 (2.6) | 45 (2.8) | 0.93 [0.46–1.85] | 0.83 |
| Cesarean section, No, (%) | 50 (13.0) | 461 (28.8) | 0.37 [0.27–0.51] | <0.01 |
| Clinical Characteristics of SGA mothers with GDM | ||||
| Diet treatment for GDM, No, (%) | 380 (99.2) | NA | NA | |
| Drug treatment for GDM, No, (%) | 3 (0.8) | NA | NA | |
| Recurrent GDM, No, (%) | 18 (4.7) | NA | NA | |
BMI, body mass index; NA, not applicable; ICP, intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; RR, relative risk; SD, standard deviations; SGA, small for gestational age;.
, GDM diagnosed by IADPSG criteria published in 2010.
, BMI, weight (kg)/length (m)2.
, abnormal placenta contain velamentous placenta and battledore placenta.
, Maternal heart diseases contain congenital heart disease, cardiomyopathy, pericarditis and heart failure.
, Oligohydramnios can be defined as amniotic fluid volume <5% for gestational age, AFI <5 cm or maximal deepest pocket <2 cm.
, Placental insufficiency can be defined as 36-week cerebroplacental ratio <5th centile, umbilical artery blood gas analysis pH <7.15, or placental weight <10th centile.
, Renal diseases contain nephrotic syndrome, lupus nephritis, chronic nephritis and renal failure.
, Uterine malformation contain uterus hypoplasia, monocular uterus, double uterus, biangular uterus, mediastinal uterus and arch uterus.