Table 2.
Clinical characteristics of small-for-gestational-age infants born to mothers with and without gestational diabetes mellitus (N = 1,981).
| SGA infants born to mothers with GDM (n = 383) | SGA infants born to mothers without GDM (n = 1,598) | RR (95%CI) | p Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gestational age, mean (SD), weeks | 38.4 (1.0) | 38.5 (1.1) | 0.04 | |
| Sex (boys/girls) | 172:221 | 647:951 | 1.14 [0.92–−1.43] | 0.24 |
| Birth weight (BW), mean (SD), g | 2,418.2 (211.6) | 2,397.0 (206.1) | 0.08 | |
| >2,500 g, No, (%) | 71 (18.5) | 262 (16.4) | 1.16 [0.87–1.55] | 0.31 |
| 2,000–2,500 g, No, (%) | 299 (78.1) | 1,278 (80.0) | 0.89 [0.68–1.17] | 0.41 |
| <2,000 g, No, (%) | 13 (3.4) | 58 (3.6) | 0.93 [0.51–1.72] | 0.82 |
| Birth length, mean (SD), cm | 46.5 (1.8) | 46.3 (2.1) | 0.14 | |
| BMI,* kg/m2, mean (SD) | 11.0 (0.9) | 11.0 (1.4) | 0.47 | |
| Head circumference, mean (SD), cm | 31.9 (1.2) | 31.8 (1.2) | 0.95 | |
| Ponderal index† | 0.91 [0.70–1.17] | 0.46 | ||
| >2.2, No, (%) | 286 (74.7) | 1,222 (76.5) | ||
| <2.2, No, (%) | 97 (25.3) | 376 (23.5) | ||
| Siblings who were SGA, No, (%) | 43 (33.9) | 116 (21.4) | 1.88 [1.23–2.86] | <0.01 |
| Apgar score | ||||
| 1 min, Low (≤ 7), No, (%) | 13 (3.4) | 27 (1.7) | 2.04 [1.05–4.00] | 0.03 |
| 1 min, Low (≤ 3), No, (%) | 4 (1.0) | 3 (0.2) | 5.61 [1.25–25.18] | 0.01 |
| 5 min, Low (≤ 7), No, (%) | 4 (1.0) | 4 (0.3) | 4.21 [1.05–16.89] | 0.03 |
| 10 min, Low (≤ 7), No, (%) | 1 (0.3) | 2 (0.1) | 2.09 [0.19–23.10] | 0.54 |
| Perinatal complications | ||||
| Early thrombocytopenia, No, (%) | 8 (2.1) | 10 (0.6) | 3.39 [1.33–8.64] | <0.01 |
| Gastrointestinal hemorrhage, No, (%) | 9(2.3) | 19 (1.2) | 2.00 [0.90–4.46] | 0.08 |
| HIE,‡ No, (%) | 4 (1.0) | 3 (0.2) | 5.61 [1.25–25.18] | 0.01 |
| Hypoglycemia, No, (%) | 29 (7.6) | 51 (3.2) | 2.49 [1.55–3.98] | <0.01 |
| ICH | ||||
| ICH (I and II), No, (%) | 14 (3.7) | 36 (2.2) | 1.65 [0.88–3.01] | 0.12 |
| ICH (III and IV), No, (%) | 0 | 4 (0.3) | 1.00 [1.00–1.005] | 0.33 |
| Late-onset sepsis, No, (%) | 6 (1.6) | 17 (1.1) | 1.48 [0.58–3.78] | 0.41 |
| Neonatal hypoglycemia encephalopathy, No, (%) | 2 (0.5) | 2 (0.1) | 4.19 [0.59–29.83] | 0.12 |
| NEC, No, (%) | 3 (0.8) | 9 (0.6) | 1.39 [0.38–5.17] | 0.62 |
| NRDS, No, (%) | 2 (0.5) | 3 (0.2) | 2.79 [0.47–16.76] | 0.24 |
| Obstetric trauma, No, (%) | 8 (2.1) | 11 (0.7) | 3.08 [1.23–7.71] | 0.01 |
| Pulmonary hemorrhage, No, (%) | 3 (0.8) | 2 (0.1) | 6.38 [1.06–38.34] | 0.02 |
| Symptomatic polycythemia, No, (%) | 1 (0.3) | 10 (0.6) | 0.42 [0.05–3.26] | 0.39 |
| Birth defects | ||||
| Cleft palate, No, (%) | 0 | 4 (0.3) | 1.003 [1–1.005] | 0.33 |
| Hypospadias, No, (%) | 2 (0.5) | 10 (0.6) | 0.83 [0.18–3.82] | 0.81 |
| Polydactyly, No, % | 1 (0.3) | 10 (0.6) | 0.42 [0.05–3.26] | 0.39 |
| Ventricular septal defect, No, (%) | 3 (0.8) | 17 (1.1) | 0.73 [0.21–2.52] | 0.62 |
BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; HIE, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy; ICH, Intracranial hemorrhage; NEC: Necrotizing enterocolitis; NRDS, neonatal respiratory distress syndrome; NA, not applicable; RR, relative risk; SD, standard deviations; SGA, small for gestational age.
*
, BMI, weight (kg)/length (m)2.
†
, Ponderal index, ([birth weight (g)]/ [crown heel length (cm)]3) ×100.
‡
, SGA infants born to mothers with GDM: 1 mild HIE, 1 moderate HIE, 2 severe HIE; SGA infants born to mothers without GDM: 0 mild HIE, 1 moderate HIE, 2 severe HIE.