Table 1.

Primary socio-technical determinants of temporal water-demand patterns identified from literature.

Socio-technical Determinant	Explanation/Reference
Technical
Previous water demand (lagged)	⁃Water demand depends on its past values (Alhumoud, 2008; Bougadis et al., 2005; Hutton and Kapelan, 2015; Jain et al., 2001; Jain and Ormsbee, 2002; Jentgen et al., 2007; Pesantez et al., 2020; Wu and Zhou, 2010; Zhou et al., 2000); e.g., weekly water demand is highly correlated with water demand in the previous week (Jain et al., 2001)
Environmental
Climatic
Maximum air temperature	⁃Increases in water demand when maximum air temperature increases, especially during dry periods (Bougadis et al., 2005; Goodchild, 2003; House-Peters and Chang, 2011; Jain et al., 2001; Jain and Ormsbee, 2002; Jentgen et al., 2007; Pesantez et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2000)
Rainfall amount	⁃Decreases in weekly water demand when there is increasing rainfall volume (Bougadis et al., 2005; Goodchild, 2003; House-Peters and Chang, 2011; Jain et al., 2001; Jain and Ormsbee, 2002; Jentgen et al., 2007)
Rainfall occurrence	⁃Decrease in water use when rainfall occurs (defined as rainfall amount > given threshold value) (Jain and Ormsbee, 2002; Maidment and Parzen, 1984); i.e., rainfall occurrence is set to 1, with rainfall amount greater than zero (Jain et al., 2001) or greater than 1 [in] (Maidment and Parzen, 1984) ⁃Decrease in water demand when rainfall occurs; rainfall amount has higher significant correlation than rainfall occurrence (Bougadis et al., 2005) ⁃Decrease in water demand when rainfall occurs; rainfall occurrence has higher significant correlation than rainfall amount (Jain et al., 2001)
Days since rain	⁃Water demand increases as the number of days since it has rained last increases, attributed to people watering their lawns/gardens after several days of no rain (Goodchild, 2003; Zhou et al., 2000)
Seasonality
Season	⁃Seasonal impact (e.g., summer, winter) of water demand variations; summer demand is higher than winter demand (Arbués et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2000)
Seasonal rainfall	⁃Defined in terms of the season and rainfall occurrence (Hansen and Narayanun, 1981) ⁃Impact of rainfall on water demand varies seasonally; the magnitude of water demand decrease in response to summer rainfall (i.e., rainfall occurring in summer) is higher than that due to winter rainfall (Hansen and Narayanun, 1981; Zhou et al., 2000)
Weekday	⁃Significant cyclic effect of the day of the week on water-demand patterns (Cutore et al., 2008; Gato et al., 2007; Pesantez et al., 2020; Rizvi et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2000)
Institutional
Water conservation policy	⁃Institutional level efforts for managing and restricting outdoor watering to promote better water conservation (Campbell et al., 2004; Kenney et al., 2008; Reynaud and Romano, 2018)
Financial
Water price	⁃Water price increase can decrease water use (Burney et al., 2001; House-Peters and Chang, 2011; Reynaud and Romano, 2018); primarily affects long-term water demand planning and modelling (Donkor et al., 2014)
Social
Population	⁃Impact of population change on long-term water demand modelling; water demand likely increases with the increase in population (Burney et al., 2001; House-Peters and Chang, 2011; Jain et al., 2001; Maidment and Parzen, 1984), especially without changes in water use efficiency and conservation policies