Fig. 4.

Alternative social capital measures. The figure shows the estimation results of the impact of social capital on the evolution of Covid-19 infections. They are based on the estimation model outlined in equation (1) and the outcome variable is the log cumulative number of Covid-19 infections per 100,000 inhabitants. As measure of social capital, in panel (a) we use turnout, literacy rates in 1821 and blood donations per capita, in panel (b) we use turnout and blood donations per capita, in panel (c) we use turnout and the number of registered organ donors per capita, in panel (d) we use turnout and associations per capita (see Appendix Table C3 for point estimates).