Table 2.
Coaching systems that were evaluated in controlled laboratory or clinical environment under direct supervision.
| Study | Healthcare domain | UI technologies | Coach-user interaction | Subject monitoring technologies | Continuous monitoring | Real-time evaluations and feedback | Number of subjects | Duration of trial | Evaluation outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pirovano et al. (40) | Physical rehabilitation | TV screen | Gamification of training with virtual therapist | Kinect, Wii Balance Board, Tymo Therapy Plate | - | Motion capture and body balance | 7 older adults with multi-morbidities | 1 session | Feasibility and usability study |
| Michel et al. (41) | Physical rehabilitation | TV screen | Gamification training with motivational messages from animal virtual coach | Kinect | - | Hand movements | 20 children with Cerebral Palsy | 4 sessions | Usability and acceptance of technology, game was enjoyable |
| Lupu et al. (42) | Physical rehabilitation | VR headset, PC monitor | VR avatar of a physiotherapist | Electrical stimulator in arms, EOG, EEG | - | Eye tracking (EOG), motor imagery hand movements | 7 adults with post stroke central neuromotor syndrome | 3 sessions | Feasibility and technology acceptance study |
| Pham et al. (43) | Physical rehabilitation | TV screen | Jintronix games and therapy modules | Kinect | - | Motion capture | 20 hospitalized adults with burn injuries | 1 session | Feasibility study, demonstrated good acceptability and safety in hospital environment |
| Bell and Weinstein (44) | Mental disorders | PC monitor | Virtual conversational agent providing feedback on interview responses | Headset with microphone | - | Speech recognition | 10 subjects with psychiatric disabilities | 1 session | Strongly positive response to simulated job interview skill training |
| Cameron et al. (45) | Mental disorders | PC monitor | Chatbot providing self-assessment and tips for stress, anxiety, depression, sleep, and self esteem | - | - | - | 7 employees from a mental health social enterprise | 1 session | Enjoyable, easy to use and consistent, but poor error management and intelligence |
| Fok et al. (46) | Cognitive rehabilitation | PC monitor | Audible and visual cues in virtual environment of a kitchen | Data gloves | - | Position and tactile information of hands | 2 post-stroke patients with cognitive impairment | 1 session | Observing therapists endorsed the system, but larger population study and improvements needed |
| Wirzberger et al. (47) | Cognitive rehabilitation | TV screen | Dialogue-based memory training with virtual agent | Microphone | - | Speech recognition (experimenter) | 62 older adults | 1 session | Training performance correlated with recall, longer system response times showed performance benefits |
| Freeman et al. (48) | Psychological therapy | VR headset | Avatar coach in VR environment | Microphone, head and hand VR trackers | - | Speech recognition, hand movements | 100 adults with fear of heights | 4 weeks | VR can increase treatment provision for mental health disorders |
| Liu et al. (49) Vahabzadeh et al. (50) | Autism spectrum disorder | AR headset | Interaction in augmented reality environment | Smart glasses | - | Gaze attention, head movement | 10 children with ASD and their caregivers | 1 session | Initial evidence in reducing hyperactivity, inattention and impulsivity in children with ASD |
| Rosenfield et al. (51) | Autism spectrum disorder | VR headset | Social training in VR environment | VR tracker, microphone | - | Head movement, speech recognition | 2 children with ASD | 1 session | Feasibility and technology acceptance study |
| Miloff et al. (52) | Exposure therapy | VR headset | Virtual therapist delivered voiceover psychoeducation and supportive feedback | Smartphone IMU sensors | - | Head movement | 100 adults with spider phobia | 1 session (52 weeks follow up) | VR therapy reduced short-term symptoms, no long-term advantage over in-vivo therapy |
| Kang et al. (53) | Virtual nurse | PC monitor | Virtual nurse offering healthcare and lifestyle advices | Microphone | - | Speech recognition | 26 older adults | 1 session | Virtual nurses based on adaptive persuasion models resulted in higher social presence and lower frustration |
| Shamekhi et al. (54) | Self-care management | PC monitor | Conversational agent as virtual coach | - | - | - | 9 adults with spinal cord injury | 1 session | Feasibility and technology acceptance study |
UI, User Interface; Subject monitoring technologies: Type of sensing data/devices used, Continuous monitoring: Always-on tracking features, Real-time evaluations and feedback: Dynamic user evaluations using sensing data and provision of appropriate interventions.