Table 1.

USFDA-approval commercial IONPs

Generic name of SPION	Ferumoxide	Ferumoxsil	Ferumoxytol
Trade name	Feridex I.V (USA) Endorem (EU)	Lumirem (USA) GastroMARK (EU)	Feraheme (USA) Rienso (EU)
Approval date	USFDA approval in 1996 Discontinued in 2008	USFDA approval in 1996 Discontinued in 2012	USFDA approval in 2009
Coating	Dextran	Siloxane	Carboxymethyl-dextran
Size	120–180 nm	300 nm	20–50 nm
Blood half-life	10 min	NA	14 h
Recommended dose	30 μmol Fe kg−1	600 mL (105 mg Fe)	An initial 510 mg dose followed by a second 510 mg dose 3 to 8 days later
Administration route	Intravenously	Oral suspension	Intravenously
Application/indication	Visualization of liver tumors and metastasis	Contrast enhancement agent for MRI of gastrointestinal and examination of the bowel	Iron replacement therapy for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia in adult patients with chronic kidney disease
Human side Effects	Nausea, leg pain, headache, chest pain, hives, vasodilation	Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cramps, iron overload, hiatal hernia	Hypotension, infusion site reactions, gastrointestinal complications, dizziness
Animals toxicology	Despite evidence of long-term toxicity, no iron overload, oxidative stress, pathological brain cell, and myelin changes were detected [298]	There are no carcinogens, genotoxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity in vivo studies. No neurotoxic side effects have been reported (see Foot note link 14)	Repeat-dose toxicity, reduction in body weight gain and food consumption, enhancement in pigmentation intensity, decrease in fetal weights and external and soft tissue fetal malformations in vivo studies. No neurotoxic side effects have been reported (see Foot note link 15)