Fig. 1. Rheological responses of the adopted cell model under step and cyclic loads.

a Displacement over time on the log–log scale for $E_{\mathrm{MT}}=120\mathrm{MPa}$ and $E_{\mathrm{MT}}=1200\mathrm{MPa}$. b Storage modulus $E^{\prime }$ and loss modulus $E^{″}$ over the loading frequency f on the log–log scale for $E_{\mathrm{MT}}=120\mathrm{MPa}$ and $E_{\mathrm{MT}}=1200\mathrm{MPa}$. Lissajous figures of stress–strain curves under different frequencies for c $E_{\mathrm{MT}}=120\mathrm{MPa}$ and d $E_{\mathrm{MT}}=1200\mathrm{MPa}$, respectively.