TABLE 6.

Effects of psychostimulants on gut microbiome and other systems.

Species	Drugs	Sample size	Effect on microbiome and microbial metabolite	Effect on other systems	Citations
Human	Cocaine users	HIV+ Cocaine users n = 7 HIV+ Cocaine nonusers n = 8 HIV- Cocaine users n = 7 HIV- Cocaine nonusers n = 10	↑Bacteroidetes ↓Firmicutes	No significant effect IL-1G, IL-6, 16S rRNA gene and LPS HIV-infected cocaine users had higher interferon-γ levels than all other groups	Volpe et al., 2014
Mice	Mephedrone (40 mg/kg), methcathinone (80 mg/kg), methamphetamine (5 mg/kg) 4-methyl-methamphetamine (40 mg/kg) i.p. 4 injections at 2-h intervals	n = 5-7 mice per group	Diverse alteration in α-diversity, β-diversity, relative abundance of OTUs and bacterial phyla level among different drugs as well as at different days after drug injections. BLAST analysis identified individual bacterial species linked to specific drugs at different days: Fusimonas intestine, Mucispirillum schaedleri linked to mephedrone at day 1. Paramuribaculum intestinale linked to methcathinone at day 1 and mephedrone at day 7. Duncaniella muris linked NA to methcathinone at day 1 and 4-methyl-methamphetamine at day 7.	NA	Angoa-Perez et al., 2020
Rat	Methamphetamine Intraperitoneal injection	Methamphetamine group n = 8 Control group n = 8	↓Phascolarctobacterium ↓Propionate ↑Ruminococcaceae, Bacillaceae, Proteobacteria and Fusobacteria ↑Fecal microbial diversity No differences in the relative abundance of n-butyric acid	NA	Ning et al., 2017
	Methamphetamine Intraperitoneal injection	Methamphetamine group n = 17 Saline group n = 5	↑Akkermansia, Butyricimonas ↓Acetivibrio In higher MA-induced CPP responder rats	NA	Yang et al., 2021