Figure 4.

Protective attributes of biofilms. Bacteria within biofilms secrete a wide range of extracellular polymeric substances, collectively called EPS, which secure attachment, slow the diffusion of antimicrobials such as antibiotics and NPs, and protect bacterial cells from external stressors. Within a biofilm, there is enhanced gene exchange (e.g., AR genes) and secretion of extracellular enzymes such as β-lactamases, that can degrade antibiotics. Together, these attributes enhance resistance of biofilm infections to antibiotics and other antimicrobial approaches.