Table 2.
Pooled estimates of risk factors for PPD.
| Studies | PPD | Participants | Prevalence (95% CI) | P value | I2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (in years) | 0.52 | |||||
| <20 | 54 | 3412 | 24310 | 23.34 (18.58–28.89) | 97.60% | |
| >20 | 54 | 30781 | 1133022 | 20.35 (14.01–28.62) | 99.90% | |
| Alcohol use | 0.02 | |||||
| Yes | 18 | 1387 | 10311 | 20.97 (15.73–27.39) | 92.20% | |
| No | 17 | 11000 | 80111 | 14.49 (12.52–16.72) | 91.60% | |
| Breast feeding | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 49 | 7747 | 62410 | 16.51 (13.64–19.84) | 98.30% | |
| No | 50 | 1225 | 5568 | 25.03 (20.99–29.54) | 89.40% | |
| Parity | 0.92 | |||||
| Primiparous | 120 | 21666 | 834265 | 17.39 (13.44–22.19) | 99.70% | |
| Multiparous | 120 | 15834 | 166938 | 17.63 (15.48–20.00) | 98.40% | |
| Education (in years) | <0.01 | |||||
| <12 | 130 | 17826 | 106174 | 19.84 (17.97–21.86) | 97.70% | |
| >12 | 127 | 15676 | 128967 | 15.66 (14.44–16.95) | 95.40% | |
| Employment | 0.11 | |||||
| Paid employment | 117 | 6802 | 48324 | 18.29 (15.80–21.08) | 97.30% | |
| Unemployment | 118 | 7331 | 37230 | 21.08 (19.05–23.25) | 95.10% | |
| Ethnicity | 0.27 | |||||
| Indigenous | 41 | 4114 | 38404 | 14.76 (12.19–17.76) | 97.50% | |
| Nonindigenous or immigrant | 41 | 4783 | 38948 | 17.06 (14.22–20.35) | 96.90% | |
| Family type | 0.82 | |||||
| Nuclear | 34 | 2378 | 11362 | 20.66 (17.95–23.67) | 91.50% | |
| Extend | 34 | 2763 | 12870 | 21.15 (18.30–24.31) | 92.70% | |
| Financial problems | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 23 | 1434 | 5480 | 31.82 (25.57–38.79) | 95.20% | |
| No | 23 | 1571 | 12286 | 15.92 (12.49–20.07) | 96.10% | |
| Gender preference | 0.4 | |||||
| Yes | 17 | 987 | 10288 | 17.78 (11.53–26.39) | 97.90% | |
| No | 17 | 1190 | 13107 | 13.82 (9.12–20.40) | 98.10% | |
| Gestational age | <0.01 | |||||
| Term | 42 | 13136 | 104944 | 15.48 (12.85–18.53) | 98.60% | |
| pre- or post-term | 42 | 3169 | 21341 | 22.04 (18.14–26.52) | 93.10% | |
| Infant death | 0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 17 | 479 | 1294 | 43.44 (25.89–62.80) | 94.50% | |
| No | 15 | 1493 | 18042 | 18.50 (11.53–28.35) | 98.90% | |
| Infant illness | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 41 | 2597 | 11180 | 29.00 (21.78–37.46) | 97.80% | |
| No | 40 | 5793 | 44536 | 17.95 (14.74–21.67) | 98.10% | |
| Infant weight | 0.14 | |||||
| Normal | 29 | 2490 | 18083 | 17.41 (14.00–21.45) | 96.90% | |
| Abnormal | 29 | 629 | 3582 | 23.55 (16.75–32.05) | 94.30% | |
| Infant sex | 0.13 | |||||
| Male | 78 | 10252 | 72227 | 17.97 (15.62–20.58) | 97.40% | |
| Female | 77 | 9760 | 67494 | 20.77 (18.20–23.60) | 97.20% | |
| Life stress | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 35 | 3735 | 23151 | 28.81 (23.49–34.78) | 96.70% | |
| No | 35 | 2538 | 20435 | 14.53 (11.84–17.70) | 96.10% | |
| Delivery Location | 0.49 | |||||
| Home | 11 | 316 | 5984 | 14.88 (6.93–29.10) | 96.90% | |
| Health facility | 11 | 969 | 15285 | 11.08 (7.29–16.50) | 97.40% | |
| Marital status | <0.01 | |||||
| Married or cohabiting | 91 | 22284 | 168779 | 16.37 (14.55–18.37) | 98.50% | |
| Single (unmarried, widowed or divorced) | 91 | 5247 | 26763 | 28.14 (24.96–31.55) | 94.40% | |
| Maternal health problems (perinatal period) | 0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 68 | 7970 | 77815 | 23.97 (19.40–29.23) | 98.30% | |
| No | 68 | 12014 | 143334 | 16.71 (13.81–20.09) | 99.00% | |
| Mode of delivery | 0.4 | |||||
| Spontaneous | 125 | 25499 | 972401 | 18.31 (14.34–23.08) | 99.70% | |
| Instrument or CS | 126 | 19053 | 555861 | 21.01 (16.83–25.90) | 99.60% | |
| Number of children | 0.68 | |||||
| 1 or less | 20 | 645 | 3355 | 17.74 (13.18–23.45) | 92.80% | |
| 2 or more | 20 | 710 | 4035 | 19.38 (14.15–25.95) | 94.50% | |
| Partner support (assistance) | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 31 | 10646 | 89016 | 15.40 (12.48–18.86) | 97.80% | |
| No | 31 | 2994 | 6793 | 35.99 (28.43–44.31) | 95.40% | |
| Partnership | <0.01 | |||||
| Intimate or satisfied | 42 | 4035 | 23404 | 17.11 (14.54–20.04) | 96.50% | |
| Unsatisfied | 42 | 1569 | 4921 | 39.96 (33.33–46.98) | 94.00% | |
| Pregnancy plan | <0.01 | |||||
| Planned | 81 | 5840 | 45033 | 17.36 (14.91–20.12) | 97.40% | |
| Unplanned | 81 | 4237 | 22925 | 28.12 (24.18–32.43) | 96.70% | |
| Religion | 0.77 | |||||
| Yes | 9 | 816 | 14470 | 15.11 (6.25–32.23) | 99.20% | |
| No | 9 | 489 | 3448 | 17.47 (10.65–27.33) | 96.00% | |
| Residence | 0.73 | |||||
| Urban | 15 | 2229 | 87091 | 12.10 (4.83–27.18) | 99.70% | |
| Rural | 15 | 1645 | 21927 | 14.46 (8.61–23.26) | 99.00% | |
| Sleep | 0.08 | |||||
| Satisfied | 11 | 948 | 10483 | 17.20 (10.10–27.75) | 98.40% | |
| Unsatisfied | 12 | 1045 | 4643 | 30.78 (19.49–44.95) | 98.20% | |
| Smoking | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 36 | 1238 | 6948 | 25.17 (20.84–30.07) | 88.80% | |
| No | 35 | 13314 | 97611 | 15.74 (13.93–17.73) | 95.70% | |
| Social support | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 55 | 4467 | 29888 | 15.15 (12.93–17.68) | 96.60% | |
| No | 55 | 2741 | 10078 | 32.03 (27.42-37.02) | 95.00% | |
| Violence | <0.01 | |||||
| Yes | 37 | 2210 | 6987 | 40.40 (34.11–47.02) | 95.00% | |
| No | 37 | 14631 | 111554 | 15.65 (12.88–18.89) | 98.60% | |
CS = Cesarean section.