Table 1.
Characteristics of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes (diagnosed < 18 years of age) with and without comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders
| No neurodevelopmental disorder | Any neurodevelopmental disordera | Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder | Autism spectrum disorder | Intellectual disability | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) | 10,562 (93.3) | 764 (6.8) | 415 (3.7) | 89 (0.8) | 71 (0.6) |
| Sex, n (%) | |||||
| Male | 5737 (54.3) | 533 (69.8) | 284 (68.4) | 66 (74.2) | 40 (56.3) |
| Female | 4825 (45.7) | 231 (30.2) | 131 (31.6) | 23 (25.8) | 31 (43.7) |
| Calendar year of diabetes diagnosis | |||||
| 1990-1999 | 1273 (12.0) | 72 (9.4) | 40 (9.6) | 7 (7.9) | 7 (9.9) |
| 1999-2013 | 9289 (88.0) | 692 (90.6) | 375 (90.4) | 82 (92.1) | 64 (90.1) |
| Age at diabetes diagnosis, years | |||||
| Mean (SD) | 9.5 (4.6) | 9.9 (4.3) | 9.8 (4.1) | 9.9 (4.5) | 10.4 (4.2) |
| Median (IQR) | 9.5 (5.7,13.4) | 10.3 (6.6,13.2) | 9.9 (6.5,12.9) | 10.1 (6.6,13.6) | 11.0 (7.1,13.2) |
| Age at the end of follow-up, years b | |||||
| Mean (SD) | 17.4 (6.6) | 18.1 (5.0) | 17.8 (4.6) | 18.5 (5.8) | 19.1 (5.6) |
| Median (IQR) | 17.7 (12.7,21.7) | 18.3 (14.6,21.5) | 18.1 (14.6,21.1) | 18.0 (15.2,22.2) | 19.6 (15.3,23.1) |
| Length of follow-up, years b | |||||
| Mean (SD) | 7.9 (4.9) | 8.2 (4.4) | 8.1 (4.4) | 8.5 (4.6) | 8.7 (4.3) |
| Median (IQR) | 7.4 (3.8,11.2) | 8.4 (4.8,11.3) | 8.2 (4.5,11.1) | 8.2 (5.0,11.0) | 9.3 (5.1,11.8) |
| Baseline insulin administration method, n (%) | |||||
| Multiple daily injections | 7821 (74.0) | 578 (75.7) | 301 (72.5) | 66 (74.2) | 63 (88.7) |
| Insulin pump | 2545 (24.1) | 176 (23.0) | 111 (26.7) | 22 (24.7) | 6 (8.45) |
| Missing | 196 (1.9) | 10(1.3) | 3 (0.7) | 1 (1.12) | 2 (2.82) |
| Last recorded insulin administration method, n (%) | |||||
| Multiple daily injections | 6267 (59.3) | 498 (65.2) | 265 (63.9) | 48 (53.9) | 56 (78.9) |
| Insulin pump | 4105 (38.9) | 256 (33.5) | 147 (35.4) | 40 (44.9) | 13 (18.3) |
| Missing | 189 (1.8) | 10 (1.3) | 3 (0.7) | 1 (1.1) | 2 (2.8) |
| Other psychiatric morbidity prior to the end of follow-up, n (%) | |||||
| Yes | 1229 (11.6) | 330 (43.2) | 197 (47.5) | 39 (43.8) | 15 (21.1) |
| Parental highest education level, n (%) | |||||
| Primary and lower secondary education | 270 (2.6) | 38 (5.0) | 21 (5.0) | 1 (1.2) | 6 (8.5) |
| Upper secondary education | 4663 (44.1) | 414 (54.2) | 234 (56.4) | 40 (44.9) | 58 (67.6) |
| Postsecondary education | 5628 (53.3) | 312 (40.8) | 160 (38.6) | 48 (53.9) | 17 (23.9) |
| Missing | 1 | - | - | - | - |
| Maternal psychiatric morbidity, n (%) | |||||
| Yes | 768 (7.3) | 104 (13.6) | 59 (14.2) | 8 (9.0) | 6 (8.5) |
| Missing | 23 (0.2) | 10 (1.3) | 8 (1.9) | 1 (1.1) | - |
| Paternal psychiatric morbidity, n (%) | |||||
| Yes | 641 (6.1) | 94 (12.3) | 50 (12.0) | 10 (11.2) | 7 (9.9) |
| Missing | 26 (0.2) | 4 (0.5) | 2 (0.5) | - | - |
| Smoking status, n (%) | |||||
| Current or previous smoker | 1193 (11.3) | 182 (23.8) | 126 (30.4) | 11 (12.4) | 10 (14.1) |
| Missing | 1515 (14.3) | 79 (10.3) | 45 (10.8) | 7 (7.9) | 9 (12.7) |
| Mean BMI, kg/m 2 | |||||
| Mean (SD) | 20.5 (3.8) | 21.0 (4.0) | 20.7 (3.6) | 21.3 (4.6) | 21.8 (4.7) |
| Median (IQR) | 20.0 (17.7,22.7) | 20.2 (18.3,23.0) | 20.0 (18.4,22.6) | 20.1 (18.6,22.6) | 21.7 (18.0,24.7) |
| Missing, n (%) | 47 (0.4) | 9 (1.2) | 3 (0.7) | 1 (1.1) | 4 (5.6) |
| Mean systolic blood pressure, mmHg | |||||
| Mean (SD) | 112.3 (10.2) | 112.6 (9.6) | 112.5 (9.6) | 112.9 (9.7) | 112.6 (8.8) |
| Median (IQR) | 112.4 (105.6,118.9) | 112.6 (106.3,118.7) | 112.6 (106.2,118.4) | 112.5 (107.0,119.4) | 114.2 (106.7,118.3) |
| Missing, n (%) | 1436 (13.6) | 63 (8.3) | 31 (7.5) | 8 (9.0) | 9 (12.7) |
| Mean diastolic blood pressure, mmHg | |||||
| Mean (SD) | 66.9 (6.3) | 68.0 (5.9) | 67.6 (6.0) | 68.1 (5.3) | 68.7 (6.1) |
| Median (IQR) | 66.9 (62.9,71.0) | 67.9 (64.1,72.1) | 67.2 (63.4,72.0) | 68.2 (65.3,71.2) | 68.3 (64.4,72.9) |
| Missing, n (%) | 1436 (13.6) | 63 (8.3) | 31 (7.5) | 8 (9.0) | 9 (12.7) |
All characteristics were statistically significantly (P value < 0.05) different between patients without and with any or specific diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders, except for age of diabetes diagnosis (P = 0.21) and baseline insulin administration method (P = 0.14).
aAny neurodevelopmental disorder group comprised patients diagnosed with at least one of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and intellectual disability. For the 189 patients who received more than 1 diagnosis, characteristics are presented in Supplemental Table 4.
bFollow-up period for glycemic control as the outcome, calculated from the date of type 1 diabetes diagnosis to the end of follow-up, defined as the end of study (December 31, 2013) or censored earlier due to migration or death.