|
Case control/population studies
|
| Breast |
10,808 |
Questionnaire: modified standardised life event inventory |
Divorce/separation, death of a husband/close relative or friend were associated with increased risk of breast cancer. |
(24) |
| Breast |
1,462 |
Questionnaire: stress |
Self-reported stress was associated with a significant increase in breast cancer incidence. |
(25) |
| Breast |
514 |
Questionnaire: Brown and Harris Life Event and Difficulties Schedule & psychosocial variables |
Highly stressful events and no emotional support significantly increased breast cancer risk. |
(26) |
| Breast |
858 |
Questionnaire: socioeconomic status and stressful life events |
Death of relative or spouses significantly increased breast cancer risk. |
(27) |
| Breast |
115 |
Questionnaire: Beck Depression and Spielberger Trait Inventory and interview |
Stressful life events significantly increased breast cancer risk. |
(28) |
| Breast |
36,332 |
Questionnaire: assess job demands, control and social support |
Weak correlation between low job control, high job demands and breast cancer risk. |
(29) |
| Many |
6,284 |
Bereavement question |
Bereavement correlated with an increased incidence of cancer. |
(30) |
| All |
13,092 |
Survey questions: childhood &adult Socioeconomic status |
Childhood physical abuse was associated with increased risk of cancer. |
(31) |
| Prostate |
1,933 |
Questionnaire: perceived Stress |
Prolonged workplace stress was associated with an increase in risk of cancer. |
(32) |
| Many |
4,825 |
Questionnaire: Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale |
Six years of depression was associated with an increased risk of cancer. |
(33) |
| Breast |
867 |
Questionnaire: Life Events Scale Holmes and Rahe scale |
Cumulative adverse life events perceived as stressful were associated with increased risk of breast cancer. |
(34) |
| Ovarian |
54,710 |
Modified version of the Brief Trauma Interview |
PTSD symptoms were associated with increased risk of ovarian cancer. |
(35) |
| Breast & Prostate |
991 women & 5,743 men |
Questionnaire |
A weak association between stress and risk of prostate risk but not breast cancer. |
(36) |
|
Cancer Type
|
N number
|
Stress measures
|
Negative association
|
Refs
|
| Breast |
106,000 |
Questionnaire: perceived frequency of stress, experience of adverse life events and bereavement |
A positive association of divorce with ER-negative but not ER-positive breast cancer. No consistent evidence for an association of breast cancer risk with perceived stress levels or adverse life events, or loss of parents during childhood and adolescence. |
(37) |
| Breast |
11,467 |
Questionnaire: Health and Life Experiences and assessment of social & psychosocial circumstances |
No evidence of social adversity correlating with cancer incidence. |
(38) |
| Breast |
10,519 |
Questionnaire: Stress of Daily Activities |
No association between daily stress and breast cancer risk. |
(39) |
| Breast |
167,368 |
Nationwide cohort (Fertility Register) |
No increase in breast cancer risk after the death of a child. |
(40) |
| Breast |
69,886 |
Questionnaire: informal caregiving |
No association between higher levels of caregiving and breast cancer incidence. |
(41) |
| Breast |
84,334 |
Questionnaire: stressful life events, social support |
No independent association between stressful life events and breast cancer risk. |
(42) |
| Breast |
2,739 |
Questionnaire: acute and chronic stress |
No association between acute or chronic stress and breast cancer risk. |
(43) |
| Breast |
6,689 |
Questionnaire: perceived stress |
High perceived stress resulted in a lower risk of breast cancer. |
(44) |
|
Meta Analyses/Reviews
|
| Breast |
27 studies |
Questionnaire and interview |
A modest association between death of spouse and breast cancer risk but no overall association between stressful life events and breast cancer risk. |
(45) |
| Lung |
165 studies |
Questionnaire |
Stress-related psychosocial factors are associated with higher cancer incidence in initially healthy populations. |
(46) |
| Breast |
N = 471 |
Observational studies and review |
A positive association of perceived stress, together with potentially risky lifestyle behaviours with breast cancer. |
(47) |
| Breast |
N = 530 |
Questionnaire: striking life events |
A positive association between striking life events and primary breast cancer incidence. |
(48) |
| Breast |
27 studies |
Questionnaire |
A modest association between death of spouse and breast cancer risk and no association bereavement, or other adverse life event. |
(49) |
| Many |
12 studies |
Questionnaire: Job Content and Demand |
No association between stress and breast cancer risk. |
(50) |
| Many |
review |
Self -reported work stress |
Inconclusive data but nightshift work may affect incidence. |
(51) |
