| Carbohydrate intervention |
Restore exercise-induced immunodepression (Gunzer et al., 2012; Kerksick et al., 2018), role in endurance-exercise-induced adaption like mitochondrial biogenesis and lipolysis (Mata et al., 2019). Immunomodulatory effects like decrease in systemic IL-6 release neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, reduce suppression of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, causes leukocyte distribution, neutrophil degranulation and oxidative stress, lymphocyte proliferation and functions (Maydych et al., 2017; Peake et al., 2017). Increased-natural killer (NK; Gunzer et al., 2012; Clark and Mach, 2016). Minimized exercise-induced increased circulating cytokines, redistribution of immune cells like neutrophils, monocytes, NK cells and lymphocytes (Nieman and Wentz, 2019). Upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) recovery (Nieman and Mitmesser, 2017); reduction in risk of infection and mortality from viral infections like herpes simplex virus 1 [HSV-1] (Harper et al., 2021).
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| Micronutrients including (antioxidant vitamins-vitamins C and E); vitamin D and multivitamin |
High doses of antioxidant vitamins (i.e., 10× RDA, recommended dietary allowance) effectively minimized the chances of infection in ultra-endurance athletes (Salehi et al., 2018); high dose of antioxidant decreased risk of URTI (Davison et al., 2016). Vitamins C and E in combination reduce oxidative stress in athletes (De Oliveira et al., 2019) Vitamin C inversely related to phagocytosis (Fantacone et al., 2020) Vitamin E before exercise under hypoxic condition at high altitude restores interleukin (IL)-6, TNF-α, IL-1ra, and IL-10 to normal level (Santos et al., 2016); decreases systemic inflammatory biomarkers in elite endurance athletes at altitude (Koivisto et al., 2019); in high dose acts as modulator proinflammatory agents, oxidative stress and NF-κB pathway having role in neuroprotection and cancer (Ungurianu et al., 2021). An association exists between vitamin D content and Acute Respiratory Tract Infection risk (Pham et al., 2019). Vitamin D participates in innate antimicrobial response through activation of Toll like receptors (TLR) that increased expression of both the 1-α-hydroxylase and vitamin D receptors (VDR; Chun et al., 2014). Vitamin D decreases reactive oxygen species production Neutrophil function decreased substantially in individuals with diet deficit in multiple vitamins and mineral lacks (Maggini et al., 2018). MVM supplements for at least 12weeks reduce the incidence of infection, increased vitamin C and zinc content (Fantacone et al., 2020) Zinc improves immunity of patients with sepsis (Alker and Haase, 2018)
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| Bovine colostrum |
Improves body composition increase, muscle mass and strength and burn fat (Davison, 2021) Confer immunity; abundant in immunoglobulins like IgG, IgA and IgM that (McGrath et al., 2016). Good source of other bioactive components such as growth factors like epidermal and platelet-derived growth factors, cytokines, vitamins like A, B, C, D, E, K and antimicrobial factors like antioxidant enzymes (McGrath et al., 2016). Boost immune functions or activating the immune cell by increasing neutrophil, oxidative burst and degranulation, as well as cytokine production by neutrophils and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (Davison, 2021).
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| Probiotics |
Enhances pathogen (enteric bacteria and staphylococcus) blocking or barrier functions of intestinal mucosa, epithelial health; confer adaptive Immunity (Georgieva et al., 2015; Terpou et al., 2019; Stavropoulou and Bezirtzoglou, 2020). In risk groups leads to bacterial or fungal sepsis, systemic and localized infection, allergies, transfer of antibiotic resistance genes and bowel ischemia (Kothari et al., 2019). Some strains show antagonistic effects towards the host gut microbes like nutrient competition, co-aggregation with pathogens, and elicit response (De Melo Pereira et al., 2018). Reduce URTI and cold symptoms with a significant increase in IFN-γ and sIgA in serum (Zhang et al., 2018). Increase serum cytokines, efficiency of influenza vaccine and minimizing occurrence and duration of respiratory infections in COVID patients (Darbandi et al., 2021). Reduce infection rate and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP; Manzanares et al., 2016).
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| Plant-derived and herbal supplements (including Echinacea, polyphenols and other plant-derived substances) |
Provide both innate and adaptive immunity through its bioactive components (glycoproteins caffeic acid phenolic compounds, flavanoids; Jain and Pasare, 2017) Have immunomodulatory functions like inhibiting CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes and enhancing the phagocytosis ability of macrophages by increasing the lysosomal activity and nitric oxide production, re-establish splenic NK cells activity, activating Th1 and Th2 cytokines for antibody production (Abel et al., 2018) Possess antioxidant and antibacterial properties, growth-inhibitory effects in different cancers like colon, prostate, liver, stomach, cervix, pancreas, breast, and leukemia (Zhou et al., 2016; Sharifi-Rad et al., 2018) Prevent the risk of disease like cardio-vascular disorder, cancer, arthrosclerosis, diabetes, osteoporosis and neurodegenerative diseases (Kozłowska and Szostak-Węgierek, 2017) Modulate gut immune system by increasing intraepithelial T cells and mucosal eosinophils, and activating inflammatory response against helminthes parasites (Motran et al., 2018) Altered decease inflammatory biomarkers like interferon-γ, IL-4, IL-17, pentraxin 3, and NO in patients of Nickel-Mediated Allergic Contact Dermatitis (Magrone et al., 2019)
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