Table 2.
Established and potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for canine MIUC.
| Biomarker | Method of Detection | Tissue/Biofluid | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| p63 | IHC | Tumor | Prognosis |
| Survivin (nuclear) | IHC | Tumor (↑) * | Diagnosis |
| Stratifin | IHC | Diagnosis | Diagnosis |
| uroplakin | IHC | Tumor (↓) | Diagnosis |
| ELISA | Urine (↑) | ||
| FGF | ELISA | Urine (↑) | Diagnosis |
| EGFR, HER-2 | RT-qPCR | Tumor (↑) | Diagnosis |
| IHC | |||
| PDGFR-β, KIT | IHC | Tumor (↑) | Diagnosis |
| BRAFV595E | Droplet PCR | Urine (+) # | Diagnosis |
| PCR | Plasma (+) | ||
| Choline | NMR | Urine (↑) | Diagnosis |
| Urea | NMR | Urine (↑) | Diagnosis |
| Methylguanidine | NMR | Urine (↑) | Diagnosis |
| Citrate | NMR | Urine (↑) | Diagnosis |
| Acetone | NMR | Urine (↑) | Diagnosis |
| β-hydroxybutyrate | NMR | Urine (↑) | Diagnosis |
| Oleic acid | DESI-MS/ TS-MS | Tumor (↑) | Diagnosis |
| Stearic acid | DESI-MS/ TS-MS | Tumor (↓) | Diagnosis |
* Increased levels might be diagnostic of MIUC, # Presence of the mutation might be diagnostic of MIUC. Abbreviations: FGF: fibroblast growth factor, EGFR: epidermal growth factor receptor, HER-2: human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, PDGFR: platelet-derived growth factor receptor, KIT: KIT- proto-oncogene receptor tyrosine kinase, ErbB: erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene, Flt3: fms-like tyrosine kinase 3, BRAF: v-Raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B.