Table 3.
Mechanism of anthelmintic resistance for the commonly used anthelmintics in humans and livestock species.
| Anthelmintic Drugs | Helminth Species | Reported Mechanism of Drug Resistance | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oxamniquine | Schistosomes | 1. Deficiency in drug-activating enzyme—sulfotransferase 2. Loss of function in drug activating enzyme sulfotransferase |
[68,69] |
| Praziquantel |
Schistosomes | 1. Deficiency in drug-activating enzyme—sulfotransferase | [57,70] |
| Macrocyclic lactones (Ivermectin and Avermectin) | Haemonchus contortus | 1. Alter the structure of GluCl channel subunits or GABA receptor 2. Overexpression of P-glycoproteins |
[71,72,73] |
| Imidazothiazoles (Levamisole) |
Trichostrongylids |
1. Reduction in the number of levamisole receptors in resistant trichostrongylids 2. Reduction in the affinity of levamisole receptors for levamisole |
[74] |
| Closantel |
Fasciola spp. Haemonchus contortus |
1. Reduction of feeding by resistant worms 2. Reduction of dissociation of the drug-albumin complex in the worm gut 2. Overexpress the drug target (P-glycoprotein mediated increased drug efflux) |
[75] |
| Amino-acetonitrile derivatives (Monepantel) | Haemonchus contortus | 1. Mutations in the drug target gene (Hco-mptl-1) | [67] |