Table 1.
Summary of formin expression in different types of cancer. The in vitro and in vivo experiments providing evidence of the involvement of formins in cancers and the use of formin expression as prognostic biomarkers are also summarized.
| Cancer | Formin | Expression Levels (Technique) or Mutations |
In Vitro | In Vivo (Nude Mice) | Prognosis | References | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Matrix Degradation |
Invadopodia Formation |
Migration | Invasion | Metastasis | Tumor size/Weight | |||||
| Brain | DIAPH1 | ↑ (IHC/T) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [228,229,230] | ||
| DIAPH1 | ↑ | [231] | ||||||||
| DIAPH3 | [232] | |||||||||
| DAAM1 | ↑ | [233] | ||||||||
| DAAM1 | ↑ (Mass spectrometry) | [234] | ||||||||
| DAAM2 | ↑ (ISH/T) | ↑ | [235] | |||||||
| FMNL1 | ↑ (IHC/T) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [236] | ||||
| FMNL2 FMN2 |
Mutants | [237] | ||||||||
| FHOD3 | ↑ (WB) | ↑ | [238] | |||||||
| FHOD3 | ↑ (IHC/T) | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [239] | |||||
| FHOD1 INF2 |
↑ (IHC/T) | ↑ | Not clear | [240] | ||||||
| Breast | All | ↑ or ↓ depending on the specific formin | [241,242] | |||||||
| DIAPH1/2/3 | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [243] | ||||||
| DIAPH1 | ↑ (T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | [244] | ||||||
| DIAPH3 | Deletions | ↑ | ↑ | [232] | ||||||
| DIAPH3 | ↓ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [245] | |||||
| DIAPH3 | [246] | |||||||||
| DAAM1 | ↑ (IHC) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | No effect | Poor | [247,248,249,250] | |||
| FHOD1 INF2 |
↑ (IHC/T) | ↑ | ↑ | No effect | [251] | |||||
| Bone | DAAM1 | ↑ | [252] | |||||||
| FMNL1 | ↑ (T) | ↑ Lung metastasis | [253] | |||||||
| Cervix | DAAM2 | ↑ (T) | Poor | [254] | ||||||
| Colorectal | DIAPH1 | ↑ (IHC) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [255] | |||
| DIAPH1 | [256] | |||||||||
| DIAPH2 | Mutants | Poor | [257] | |||||||
| DIAPH2 | [258] | |||||||||
| DIAPH3 | ↑ (T) Mutants |
Poor | [259] | |||||||
| DAAM1/2 | ↑ (T) | [260] | ||||||||
| DAAM2 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [261] | |||||
| FMNL2 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [262,263,264,265,266] | ||
| FMNL3 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [267,268] | ||
| FMN2 | ↓ (T) | No effect | [269] | |||||||
| FMN2 | Mutants | [270] | ||||||||
| Esophagus | DIAPH2 | ↓ (T) | [271] | |||||||
| DAAM1 | ↑ | [272] | ||||||||
| Gallbladder | FMNL2 | ↑ (IHC) | Poor | [273] | ||||||
| Head & neck | DIAPH1*/2/3 | ↑* (IHC/T/WB) Mutants |
Poor | [274] | ||||||
| DIAPH2*/3 | ↓* (T) Mutants in DIAPH2 SNP in DIAPH3 |
[275] | ||||||||
| DIAPH2 | SNP | Protective | [276] | |||||||
| FMNL1 | ↑ (IHC/ISH/WB) Amplifications |
↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [277] | |||
| FMNL3 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [278] | |||||
| FMNL3 | ↑ (IHC) | ↑ | ↑ | No effect | No effect | [279] | ||||
| FHOD1 | ↑ (IHC/T) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [280] | ||||
| Kidney | FMNL1 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [281] | |||
| DAAM2 | SNP | [282] | ||||||||
| Leukemia | DIAPH1 | ↑ | ↑ | [283] | ||||||
| FMNL1 | ↑ (T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | [284,285] | ||||||
| FHOD3 | Mutants | [286] | ||||||||
| Lymphoma | FMNL1 | ↑ (IHC/WB) | [287] | |||||||
| Liver | DIAPH3 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | [288] | |||||
| DIAPH3 | Deletions | [232] | ||||||||
| DAAM2 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | Poor | [289] | ||||||
| FMNL2 | ↓ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [290] | |||||
| Lung | DIAPH3 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | Poor | [291] | |||||
| DAAM2 | SNP | Protective | [292] | |||||||
| FMNL1 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [293] | |||
| FHOD1 | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [294] | ||||||
| Ovary | DIAPH1 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | Protective | [295] | ||||||
| DIAPH3 | ↑ | ↓ | [296] | |||||||
| FMNL1/2/3 FHOD3 |
↑ | ↑ (in vivo zebrafish) | [297] | |||||||
| Pancreas | DIAPH3 | ↑ (IHC/T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | Poor | [298] | ||||
| FMNL1/3 FMN2 |
Mutants | [299] | ||||||||
| FMN1 | SNP | Higher risk | [300] | |||||||
| FMN2 | ↑ (T) | Protective | [301] | |||||||
| Prostate | DIAPH3 | Deletions (IHC/ISH) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [232,302] | |||
| DIAPH3 | Knockdown | ↑ | ↑ | [246] | ||||||
| FMNL3 | ↑ | [303] | ||||||||
| FMN1 | SNP | Higher risk | [304] | |||||||
| INF2 | ↑ | ↑ | [305] | |||||||
| Skin | DIAPH1 | ↑ | [241] | |||||||
| DAAM1 | ↑ (IHC) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [306] | |||||
| FMNL2/3 | ↑ (IHC/WB) | ↑ | Poor (FMNL2) | [307] | ||||||
| FMNL2 | ↑ (T/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | [308] | ||||||
| FHOD1 | ↑ | [309] | ||||||||
| FHOD1 | ↑ (IHC/WB) | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | [310] | |||||
| Stomach | FMNL1/2/3 | ↑ (T) | Poor (FMNL1/3) No effect (FMNL2) |
[311] | ||||||
| FMNL2 | ↑ (WB) | ↑ | ↑ | [312] | ||||||
| FMNL1 FHOD1 |
[313] | |||||||||
| FHOD1 | ↑ (T) | [314] | ||||||||
| Thyroid | FHOD3 | ↑ (T) Copy number variations |
[315] | |||||||
IHC, immunohistochemistry; ISH, in situ hybridization; T, transcript levels; WB, western blot; ↑/↓, High/Low. The asteisks (*) label a pair of a given formin and its corresponding expression levels.