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. 2021 Oct 8;10(10):2687. doi: 10.3390/cells10102687

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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The combination of MSCs and bioscaffold materials used for BTE. (A) Mechanisms underlying MSC-based bone regeneration. Due to their characteristic expression of cell markers CD90, CD105, and CD73, and lack of HLA-molecules, MSCs have a bone tissue regeneration capacity through the actions of several mechanisms, including (1) the modulation of immune responses through the prevention of T-cell activation and reduction in the secretion of inflammatory cytokines; (2) the secretion of the angiogenic induction factor VEGF, which helps to form new blood vessels and in turn enhance bone regeneration; (3) the release of chemotactic chemokines at the bone defect site to recruit endogenous stem cells that will further enhance bone regeneration at that location; (4) the trans-differentiation of these cells into osteoblasts under the influence of host-derived factors that helps to promote new bone formation. (B) Representation of the routinely used scaffolds with examples and their general properties in the development of BTE technology.