Table 2.
Characteristics of included studies ordered alphabetically with relevant outcome measures (NR = not reported; SD = standard deviation).
| First Author, Year & Country |
Participants | Intervention | Comparator | Outcomes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristics | Theoretical Framework Articulated | Description of Intervention | Type of AAI & Delivery |
Tools Used | Time-Points | ||
| Banks [72] 2018 USA |
University students with some recruited from psychology department (76.8% female) Mean age 20.05 (SD 3.38) Year of study, type of graduate, ethnicity, health status or SES NR |
No | Group (free interaction) with as many dogs as wanted (student: dog ratio NR) for 10 min single session during mid-term exam week Various breeds (e.g., Beagle, Golden Retrievers, German Shepherds) |
AAA Handler |
No-treatment control |
PANAS—positive & negative | Pre & post stressor (SART & letter/ pattern comparison) |
| Binfet [35] 2017 Canada |
First-year university undergraduate students taking psychology classes (78% female) Mean age 18.85 (SD 2.65) Ethnicity: 57% Caucasian; 15% Chinese; 9% Mixed-Race Health status or SES NR |
Yes | Group (free interaction) 3–4 student: 1 therapy dog/handler for 20 min single session Various breeds including pure-bred & mixed (which breeds NR) |
AAT * Handler |
No-treatment control (“business as usual” control = studying) | PSS Sense of Belonging in School |
Pre, post, & then follow-up after 2 weeks |
| Fiocco [73] 2017 Canada |
Undergraduate university students (77.1% female) Mean age 21.02 (SD 5.5) Ethnicity: 37.7% Caucasian; 8.2% Black/African American; 54.1% Other Year of study, health status or SES NR |
Partial | Individual (free interaction as long as participant remained seated) with a dog for 10 min single session Various breeds of different ages & sizes/breed (e.g., Irish Setter, Schnoodle, Greyhound, King Charles Spaniel) |
AAA Unclear if handler present |
No-treatment control (sitting for 10 min) |
PANAS—positive & negative | Pre, post AAA & then after stressor (PASAT) |
| Gebhart [74] 2019 Austria |
First-year students at nursing school (77% female) Median age 20 (IQR 19–22) Type of graduate not clearly specified; health status, ethnicity or SES NR |
Partial | Group interaction (structured with different tasks, playing & interacting with dogs) student: dog/handler ratio implied 3 students: 1 therapy dogs/handler for 45–60 min for 3 sessions (time interval between sessions NR) |
AAT Handler |
No-treatment control unstructured free hour; music therapy (body percussion) & mandala painting |
STAI-S | Pre & post normal day Pre & post exam day |
| Grajfoner [37] 2017 Scotland |
University students (64.4.% female) Mean age 21.6 (SD 3.4) Year of study, type of graduate, health status, ethnicity or SES NR |
Yes | Group (free interaction) ~6 students: 1 dog/handler ratio for 20 min single session Various breeds (e.g., Labrador, Lhasa Apso, Golden Retriever) |
AAA Handler |
Handler only (HO) & dog only (DO) (handler present; no interaction) |
STAI WEMWBS UMACL |
Pre & post |
| Hall [75] 2018 USA |
Level 2 community college associate degree nursing programme Gender, age, year of study, type of graduate or health status, ethnicity or SES NR (only demographics of the course) |
Partial | Mix of group or individual session (free interaction) with numerous opportunities to interact with dog. Dog on campus minimum twice a week, visited students at various locations & on exam days for 30 min pre-exams. Intensity, length & frequency of sessions NR Standard Poodle |
AAA Handler (unclear if always present) |
No-treatment control | HADs—anxiety & depression | Pre & post (which is after 15–16 weeks from start of intervention) |
| Hunt [76] 2018 USA |
Undergraduate students enrolled in psychology courses (74% female) Mean age 19.3 (SD NR) & ≥18 yrs old Ethnicity: 52% non-Hispanic White; 27% Asian/Asian-American; 9% Hispanic/Latino; 5% Black/African American, 4% Multiracial, 2% Indian; 1% Arab Year of study, health status or SES NR |
Partial | Group interaction (free interaction) with a dog plus interactive games, icebreakers & snacks student: dog ratio not clearly stated but implied 12–14 students: 1 dog of unclear length for once/week for 4 sessions Golden Retriever |
AAA Unclear if handler present |
No-treatment control; mindfulness training alone; yoga alone; or mindfulness training with yoga |
STAI-S PANAS—positive & negative |
Pre & post every session & once 1–3 weeks after completion of AAA with stressor (WAIS-IV IQ test) |
| Meola [80] 2017 USA |
University students enrolled on accredited counselling program (85% female) Mean age 30.8 (SD NR) Ethnicity: 85.7% Caucasian; 9.5% African American Year of study, type of graduate (some Masters & PhD but NR for all), health status, or SES NR |
Yes | Individual (structured & tailored) equine-assisted learning supervision (EALS) session with a horse with 3 different activities: for 1-h single session | AAT/AAE Handler (who was also an instructor/ facilitator) |
No-treatment control | STAI-S | Pre & then post up to one month after intervention |
| Shearer [77] 2016 USA |
Undergraduate university students in psychology courses (57% female) Ethnicity: 43% Asian; 41% Caucasian; 7% Hispanic; 3% African American; 3% Other; 1% Native American; 1% Pacific Islander; 1% unidentified. Year of study, health status, age or SES NR |
Partial | Group session (free interaction) with a dog plus games & snacks students: dog ratio not clearly specified but implied 12–13 students: 1 dog for 1 h/week for 4 weeks |
AAA Facilitator |
No-treatment control (added in 2nd phase) or mindfulness meditation |
STAI-S BDI II |
Pre & then post each session for 4 weeks & then once 1–2 weeks after completion of AAA with stressor (WAIS-IV) |
| Ward-Griffin [78] 2018 Canada |
University students enrolled in introductory psychology classes (78% female) Mean age 19.4 (SD 3.73) 45.5% first-year students; others NR Type of graduate, health status, ethnicity or SES NR |
Partial | Group session (free interaction) with dogs. student to dog ratio not clearly specified with 7–12 dogs present with handlers for up to 90 min single session during mid-term exam season (on average participants spent 30 min in the space) |
AAA Handler |
Wait-list control | PSS PANAS—positive & negative SWLS Subjective Happiness Scale Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Scale |
Pre & within 24 h of AAA |
| Williams [79] 2018 USA |
University graduate students in pharmacy/physical therapy (63.2% female) Mean age 24.42 (SD NR) Year of study, health status, ethnicity, or SES NR |
Partial | Not clearly specified but inferred as individual free interaction (as long as no active running & playing) with a dog for 12 min single session prior to exam | AAA Handler |
No-treatment control (“business as usual” control = quiet time studying) | STAI-S & T | Pre & post (but before an exam) |
* as described by the authors; limited information to provide an objective assessment of type of AAI. Abbreviations used: AAA: Animal-Assisted Activity; AAE: Animal-Assisted Education; AAI: Animal-Assisted Intervention; AAT: Animal-Assisted Therapy; BDI-II: Beck Depression Inventory II; HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; IQR: interquartile range; NR: not reported; PANAS: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule; PASAT: Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task; PSS: Perceived Stress Scale; SART: Sustained Attention to Response Task; SES: socioeconomic status; SD: standard deviation; STAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; STAI-S: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory state anxiety; STAI-T: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory trait anxiety; SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Score; WAIS-IV IQ: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV.