Table 1.

Different techniques to reduce wine alcohol content in the several stages of wine production.

Stage of Wine Production	Ethanol Removal Process	Technology	Alcohol Content Reduction	References
Pre-fermentation	Reduction of fermentable sugars	Viticultural practices (leaf area reduction, pre-harvest irrigation, application of growth regulators; reduction in photosynthetic activity)	Up to 2% v/v	[37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55]
		Early fruit harvest and blends with mature harvest	Up to 3% v/v	[56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66]
		Dilution of grape must	Up to 7% v/v	[61,62,63,67,68,69,70,71,72,73]
		Filtration of must	Up to 5% v/v	[74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83]
		Addition of enzyme (glucose oxidase)	Up to 4% v/v	[5,84,85,86,87,88,89]
Fermentation	Reduction of alcohol production	Use of Non-Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts	Up to 2% v/v	[90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120]
		Use of modified yeast strains	Up to 3.6% v/v	[121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132]
		Biomass reduction	Up to 4% v/v	[133,134,135]
		Arrested fermentation	High reduction	[5,136]
Post-fermentation	Separation by membrane	Nanofiltration (NF)	Up to 4% v/v	[77,137,138,139,140,141,142]
		Reverse osmosis (RO)	Up to 0.5% v/v or less	[22,32,34,140,143,144,145,146]
		Osmotic distillation (OD)	Up to 0.5% v/v or less	[32,35,36,146,147,148,149,150,151,152]
		Pervaporation (PV)	Up to 0.5% v/v or less	[29,153,154,155,156,157,158]
		Vacuum distillation (VD)	Up to 1% v/v or less	[159,160,161]
		Spinning cone column (SCC)	Up to 0.3% v/v	[28,162,163,164,165,166]
		Multi-stage membrane-based systems	Up to 0.5% v/v or less	[80,144,167,168,169,170]