Table 1.
Biomarkers of MVs
| Biomarker Class | Name | MV Origin | Function | Target of Cargo | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Membrane-associated molecules | ARF6 | Tumors | Remodeling of actin, regulation of MV shedding | VAMP3, MHC I, β 1-integrin | [25,28,29] |
| β 1-integrin | Tumors | Cell adhesion | NA | [166] | |
| CD41 | Plasma of CRC patients | Platelet aggregation and adhesion | NA | [167] | |
| Tissue factor (TF) | Activated platelets | Thrombus formation, activation of cancer stem cells, angiogenesis | NA | [168,169] | |
| EGFR EGFRvIII |
Tumors Tumors (glioma) |
Signal transduction, oncogenic growth factor receptor, activation of transforming signaling pathways (AKT and ERK) | NA NA |
[60] [57] |
|
| VAMP3 | Tumors | Promotion of matrix invasion by tumor cells | MT1-MMP | [28,170] | |
| V-SNARE | Tumors | Interaction with Rab22a, mediation of additional cargo trafficking that converges on vesicle blebbing and shedding | Rab22a | [28] | |
| P-gp | Tumors (ALL) | Promotion of chemotherapeutic resistance | NA | [102] | |
| Ezrin | Tumors (leukemic and BC) | Co-localizes with P-gp and assists interaction of plasma membrane with cytoskeleton | NA | [96,171] | |
| PS | All cells | Membrane phospholipids | NA | [172] | |
| SM | All cells | Membrane phospholipids | NA | [53] | |
| CCL5, CCR6 | Tumors (BC) | Metastasis, proliferation | NA | [173] | |
| CCR6 | Tumors (GC) | Cancer cell-induced angiogenesis, promotion of cancer cell growth | NA | [173,174] | |
| CCR6, CX3CR1, CCL2 | Tumors (CRC) | AKT kinase activation, antiapoptotic effects on monocytes | NA | [52] | |
| CCL2 | Tumors (OC) | Improving survival rate | Doxorubicin | [175] | |
| Intracellular components | MMP2 | Tumors (BC, OC) | Degradation of extracellular matrix | NA | [176] |
| MMP9 | Tumors (BC, OC) | Degradation of extracellular matrix | NA | [176] | |
| uPA | Tumors (BC, OC, PC) | Degradation of extracellular matrix, promotion of tumor invasion | NA | [84,176] | |
| EMMPRIN (CD147) | Tumors (OC) | Production of extracellular matrix metalloproteinases, induction of proangiogenic, proliferation, and invasion activities | NA | [45,177] | |
| VEGF | Tumors (BC) | Proangiogenic factor | NA | [178] | |
| IL-1 β | Glial cells | Inflammation cytokine | NA | [179] | |
| TGF-β | Tumors (AML) | Decreasing cytotoxicity of NK cells | NKG2D | [180] | |
| tTG | Tumors (BC, glioblastoma) | Cross-linking with FN, induction of recipient fibroblast transformation | FN | [94] | |
| Nucleic acids | miR-19b | Tumors (RC) | Promotion of invasion and metastasis | NA | [90] |
| miR-29c | Tumors (RC) | Promotion of invasion and metastasis | NA | [90] | |
| miR-151 | Tumors (RC) | Promotion of invasion and metastasis | NA | [90] | |
| miR-145 | Tumors (CRC) | Drug resistance | NA | [106] | |
| miR-34a | Tumors (CRC) | Drug resistance | NA | [106] | |
| miR-1246 | Tumors (CRC) | Promotion of angiogenic activities | NA | [181] | |
| miR-92a | Tumors (CRC) | Tumor angiogenesis, cell proliferation | Down-regulated DKK-3 | [181,182] | |
| Let-7 miRNA family | Tumors (GC) | Oncogenesis, metastasis | NA | [183] | |
| miR-1289 | Tumors (GBM) | Enhancement of MV enrichment | Zipcode-like 25-nt sequence, GALR3, MK/MDK | [184] | |
| miR-21 | Tumors (lung and pancreatic cancer) | Induction of myoblast apoptosis | TLR7 | [185] | |
| miR-143BPs | THP1 monocytes/macrophages | RNA drug delivery system | NA | [186] | |
| miR-150 | Tumors | Promotion of tumorigenesis | Upregulation of VEGF | [187] | |
| miR-23a | Hypoxic tumors | Decrease of NK cells’ anti-tumor response | CD107a (LAMP1) | [188] | |
| miR-1227 | Tumors (PC) | Promotion of migration | NA | [174] | |
| cDNA | Tumors | Leads to mutations, deletions, rearrangements, and changes in gene expression | NA | [151] | |
| gDNA | Tumors | Role in genetic communication between cells | NA | [151] | |
| ssDNA | Tumors | Role in genetic communication between cells | NA | [151] | |
| c-Myc | Tumors | Oncogene | NA | [151] | |
| pDNA | Tumors | Transfer of reporter function to recipient cells | NA | [189] |
Abbreviations: MVs, microvesicles; ARF6, ADP-ribosylation factors 6; MHC I, major histocompatibility complex class I; VAMP3, vesicle-associated membrane protein 3; CD41, cluster of differentiation 41; CRC, colorectal cancer; TF, tissue factor; EGFR, epithelium growth factor receptor; MT1-MMP, membrane-type 1 matrix metalloprotease; v-SNARE, vesicular soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor; P-gp, P-glycoprotein; ALL, acute lymphoblastic leukemia; PS, phosphatidylserine; SM, Sphingomyelin; CCL5, CC chemokine ligand 5; CCR6, CC chemokine receptor 6; BC, breast cancer; GC, gastric cancer; CRAC, colorectal adenocarcinoma; CCL2, CC chemokine ligand 2; OC, ovarian cancer; MMP2, matrix metalloproteinases 2; MMP9, matrix metalloproteinases 9; uPA, urokinase plasminogen activator; PC, prostate cancer; EMMPRIN, extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer; VEGF, vascular epithelium growth factor; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; AML, acute myeloid leukemia; tTG, tissue-type transglutaminase; GBM, human primary glioblastoma multiforme; FN, fibronectin; DKK-3, dickkopf-3; GALR3, galanin receptor 3; MK/MDK, midkine; TLR7, toll-like 7 receptor; NK cells, natural killer cells; LAMP1, lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1; gDNA, genomic DNA; pDNA, plasmid DNA; ssDNA, single-stranded DNA; NA, not acquired.