Figure 2.

Cardiovascular risk factors. Smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, obesity, insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, adipokines, reactive oxygen species, and genetic influences are the most prevalent traditional risk factors. Chronic inflammation and pathological modifications present in RA (rheumatoid arthritis) are independent risk factors for atherosclerosis and may trigger the morbidity of CVD; TNF (tumor necrosis factor) α, IL (interleukin)-1, IL-6, IL-17, and complement activation represent RA-associated risk factors.