Table 3.
Associations of religious affiliation, spirituality (standardised to Z-scores), different combinations of religious affiliation and spirituality, and religious fundamentalism (standardised to Z-scores) with attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccination: results of multinominal logistic regression crude and adjusted for age, gender, and education level, leading to odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals.
| Vaccine Refusal | Vaccine Hesitancy | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | |||
| Non-affiliated vs. affiliated | Crude 1 | 0.66 (0.39–1.13) | 0.84 (0.50–1.39) |
| Adjusted 2 | 0.79 (0.45–1.39) | 1.03 (0.60–1.78) | |
| Spirituality | Crude 1 | 1.35 (1.08–1.69) ** | 0.08 (0.85–1.37) |
| adjusted 2 | 1.37 (1.08–1.73) ** | 1.12 (0.87–1.44) | |
| Model 2 | |||
| S+RA | Crude 1 | 1.08 (0.53–2.18) | 0.99 (0.48–2.05) |
| Adjusted 2 | 1.20 (0.57–2.53) | 1.18 (0.55–2.58) | |
| S+NRA | Crude 1 | 2.78 (1.20–6.41) ** | 2.14 (0.88–5.19) |
| Adjusted 2 | 2.22 (1.33–7.76) ** | 2.74 (1.07–7.00) * | |
| NS+RA | Crude 1 | 0.53 (0.26–1.12) | 0.80 (0.42–1.53) |
| Adjusted 2 | 0.77 (0.32–1.51) | 1.06 (0.60–2.11) | |
| NS + NRA | 1 | 1 | |
| Model 3 | |||
| MDFI | Crude 1 | 1.21 (0.95–1.52) | 1.16 (0.91–1.46) |
| Adjusted 2 | 1.16 (0.91–1.48) | 1.12 (0.88–1.43) |
Notes: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. 1 a crude independent variable assessed with a dependent variable. 2. an independent together with age, gender, and education level assessed with a dependent variable. S+RA = spiritual and religiously affiliated; S+NRA = spiritual but non-religiously affiliated; NS+RA = non-spiritual but religiously affiliated; NS+NRA = non-spiritual and non-religiously affiliated. MDFI = Multi-Dimensional Fundamentalism Inventory; RCT = religious conspiracy theories.