Figure 1.

Anti-bacterial and anti-biofilm effects of three herbal products on P. gingivalis. (Left panels) Shown are growth curves of P. gingivalis cultured in the presence of three herbal extracts at the MICs. The MICs of curry leaf, clove, and cinnamon were 16, 64, and 16 µg/mL, respectively (data not shown). The turbidity (OD₆₀₀) of the bacterial culture was monitored for two days at different time points. The thermo-stability of each herbal product at MICs was also assessed (denoted as points/lines of red). Data shown are representative of three independent experiments performed in triplicate assays. Similar results were obtained in three independent experiments. (Right panels) The effects of herbal extracts on biofilm formation of P. gingivalis were examined in 96-well microplate assay. The Y-axes indicate the biofilm mass after 48-h culture (OD₄₉₂). Data shown are the mean with SD from three independent experiments performed in triplicate assays. White bars indicate the vehicle control without herbal products. Black bars indicate the herbal products at different concentrations. NS: no statistical significance. ** p ≤ 0.01, **** p ≤ 0.0001 (vs. vehicle control without herbal product).