Figure 5.

Role of endogenous and exogenous nutritional ketosis in age-related diseases. Nutritional ketosis can be achieved endogenously through intermittent fasting, caloric restriction, ketogenic diets or exogenously with oral supplementation via ketone salts, ketone esters, medium-chain triglycerides, R, S-1,3- butanediol, and β-HB enantiomers, resulting in a therapeutic effect in several medical conditions, thereby targeting the underlying mechanisms of age-related diseases, such as cancers, neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, muscle dysfunction, inflammation, and metabolic syndrome, which may extend the healthy life expectancy. Abbreviations: β-HB, β-hydroxybutyrate.