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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Jun 29.
Published in final edited form as: Semin Immunol. 2021 Jun 29;52:101479. doi: 10.1016/j.smim.2021.101479

Figure 2. Development of immunosuppressive or immunostimulating plasma cells.

Figure 2.

T follicular helper cell (TFH) differentiation and context-dependent TFH heterogeneity regulate B cell CSR and isotypes. Following activation of naïve CD4+ T cells, TH cells proliferate and undergo fate decisions in response to cytokines and other differentiating factors. TFH and B cell differentiation and isotypes are influenced by IL-6 and IL-21, and dependent on CD40 and ICOS signaling for expression of the transcription factor Bcl6. Cytokines including IL-12, IL-4, IL-1β, and many others, direct (A) TH1 and IgG; (B) TH2, IgG and IgE, (C) TH17, mucosal IgM and IgA and (D) regulatory cell differentiation. The microenvironment-dependent cytokines influence TFH and B cell differentiation, lineages, and isotypes, which define their fate to be pro- or anti-tumorigenic.