TABLE 1.

Observed behavior manipulations by entomopathogenic fungi with their proposed fungal benefit, hypothesized underlying fungal mechanisms, and potential host pathways of action

Induced behavior	Fungal benefit	Fungal mechanism	Host pathway(s)	Example fungi (hosts)	Example references
Time-specific behaviors	Aligns fungal emergence with favorable abiotic factors	Effector secretion, disruption of sensory periphery	Biological clock	Ophiocordyceps spp. (Camponotus); Entomophthora muscae (Musca domestica, Drosophila)	17, 28, 36, 47, 48, 77
Light seeking	Positions host in favorable microenvironment	Effector secretion	Biological clock, phototaxis	Ophiocordyceps spp. (Camponotus, Colobopsis)	32, 33
Hyperactivity	Avoidance of social immunity, facilitates summiting	Effector secretion, host nutrient depletion	Locomotion, arousal, hunger	Ophiocordyceps spp. (Camponotus)	21, 28
Summit disease	Increases spore dispersal	Effector secretion	Thermotaxis, phototaxis, gravitaxis	Entomophthora muscae (Musca domestica, Drosophila); Entomophaga grylli (Melanoplus bivittatus); Ophiocordyceps spp. (Camponotus, Colobopsis); Eryniopsis lampyridarum (Chauliognathus pensylvanicus)	8, 35, 36, 39, 49
Surface adherence	Prevents falling from vantage points that increase spore dispersal	Hydrophobic protein secretion, growth in/around mandibular muscle, hyphal anchoring	Proboscis; mandibles and legs	Entomophthora muscae (Musca domestica, Drosophila); Pandora (Formica), Ophiocordyceps spp. (Camponotus)	8, 17, 30, 36, 58, 121
Splayed wings	Removes barriers for spore dispersal	Growth patterns in/around thoracic muscle	Intrathoracic pressure	Entomophthora muscae (Musca domestica, Drosophila); Eryniopsis lampyridarum (Chauliognathus pensylvanicus)	8, 17, 36, 49
Increased sexual behavior	Increases transmission via direct contact	Effector secretion	Sexual arousal, locomotion	Massospora (Cicada)	19, 25