Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies
| First author, year | Design | Country | Years of release from incarceration | Years of follow up | Total py at risk | Median follow up (years) | Population | Total number of people | Males % | Age at baseline (years) | Indigenous/ethnic groups (%) | Total number of deaths (n) | Deaths from violence n (%) | Violence-related CMR (95%CI) per 100,000 py | Violence-related SMR (95%CI) | Reference population for SMR | Significant risk factors for violence-related death | QA score* |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Binswanger, 2013 [24] | R | USA | 1999-2009 | 1999-2009 | 334238 | 4•4 | People released from prison | 76461 | 84 | M: 34•5, SD: 10 | Non-Hispanic white (65) Non-Hispanic African American (17) Hispanic (12) Non-Hispanic Asian (3) Other (4) |
2462 | 219 (9) | 66•0 (57•0-74•0) | 8•5 (7•5-9•5) |
Washington State population matched on sex, race, age | NR | 17 |
| Brinkley- Rubinstein, 2019 [25] | R | USA | 2000-2015 | 2000-2016 | 1974823 | NR | People released from prison | 229274 | 86 | NR | Non-white (60) White (40) |
14086 | 1461 (10) | 74•0 (70•2-77•8)§ | NR | NA | Restrictive housing during incarceration | 23 |
| Chang, 2015 [26] | R | SE | 2000-2009 | 2000-2009 | 238457 | 5•1 | People released from prison | 47326 | 93 | Rg: 16+ | Born in Sweden (97) Immigrant (3) |
2874 | 83 (3) | 35•0 (27•0-42•0) | NR | NA | NR | 18 |
| Kariminia, 2007 [27] | R | AUS | 1988-2002 | 1988-2002 | NR | 7•7 | People released from prison | 85203 | 90 | M men: 27•2 M women: 27•3 |
Non-Indigenous people (86) Indigenous people (11) |
4834 | 229 (5)‡ | NC | 10•4 (9•0-12•1) |
New South Wales population stratified on sex, age, year | NR | 16 |
| Lim, 2012 [12] | R | USA | 2001-2005 | 2001-2005 | 379363 | NR | People released from jail | 155272 | 88 | Rg: 16-89 | Non-Hispanic Black (54) Hispanic (34) Non-Hispanic white (9) Asian (0.8) Other (2) |
1149 | 219 (19) | 57•7 (50•1-65•4)§ | 1•7 (1•5-2•0) |
New York City population matched on age, sex, race, and neighbourhood | 1-2 weeks after release; incarcerated for ≥ 4 days; Aged less than 33 years; Belonging to an ethnic minority; Male; Not staying in a homeless shelter; Living in low-income area | 26 |
| Lize, 2015 [10] | R | USA | 2006-2007 | 2006-2008 | NR | NR | People released from prison | 476 | 89 | M: 34, SD: 10 | American Indian and African American (62) White (38) |
166† | 111 (67) | 107•8 (106•8-108•0) | NR | NA | Being male; Belonging to an ethnic minority; Younger age | 21 |
| Rosen, 2008 [28] | R | USA | 1980-2004 | 1980-2005 | 1822869 | NR | Males aged 20-69 years released from prison | 168001 | 100 | Med: 32, IQR: 25-40 | Black (55) White (45) |
15673 | 1708 (11) | 93•7 (89•3-98•1)§ | Black people: 2•7 (2•6-2•9) White people: 6•7 (6•1-7•3) |
Mid-years from 2008 to 2012 North Carolina population in residents matched on County, sex, race, and age | NR | 16 |
| Rosen, 2020 [29] | R | USA | 2008-2015 | 2008-2016 | 471282 | NR | People released from prison | 111479 | 86 | Rg: 18-88 | Black (50) Non-Hispanic white (42) Hispanic (5) Non-Hispanic other/unknown (3) |
3617 | 395 (11) | 83•8 (75•5-92•1)¶ | NR | NA | NR | 27 |
| Spaulding, 2015 [30] | R | USA | 1991 | 1991-2010 | 424524 | NR | People released from prison | 23510 | 94 | M: 32, SD: 9 | Non-Hispanic African American (66) Non-Hispanic white (33) Hispanic (1) Unknown (0.2) |
3208 | 267 (8) | 62•9 (55•3-70•4)§ | NR | NA | NR | 16 |
| Teplin, 2014 [11] | P | USA | 1995-1998 | 1995-2011 | NR | 14•7 | Young people released from youth detention | 1829 | 64 | Rg: 10-18 | African American (55) Hispanic (29) White (16) Other (0.2) |
111 | 75 (68) | 279•0 (215•8-342•1)|| | Men: 2•3 (2•1-2•6) Women: 3•0 (1•7-5•2) |
2005 Cook County population matched on race, sex, and age | Being male; Belonging to an ethnic minority | 18 |
| Willoughby, 2020 [9] | R | AUS | 1994-2007 | 1994-2007 | 270394 | NR | People released from prison | 41970 | 81 | Rg: 17+ | Non-Indigenous people (81) Indigenous people (19) |
2158 | 68 (3) | 25•0 (20•0-32•0) | 10•0 (7•9-12•7) |
2001 Australian population matched on age and sex | Most recent incarceration <90 days | 17 |
Note. Design: P = prospective; R = retrospective; Country: AUS = Australia; SE = Sweden; USA = United States of America; Age: M = Mean; Med = Median; Rg = Range; SD = Standard deviation; IQR = interquartile range; Other: CMR = Crude mortality rate; NA = Not applicable; NC = Not reported and could not be calculated; NR = not reported; py = person years; QA = Quality assessment; SMR = Standardised mortality rate; 95%CI = 95% confidence interval. *Based on the Methodological Standard for Epidemiological Research (MASTER) scale. Studies which scored above the median score (Med=18) are considered to have a low risk of bias. †Only includes violence-related deaths, suicides, and “other” violent causes. ‡Includes some violence-related deaths in prison. §Calculated using the number of violence-related deaths and total person-years. ¶Calculated using the standard error and violence crude mortality rate. ||Calculated using the median period of follow-up, number of people in the cohort and number of violence-related deaths.