Table 1.
Clinical applications that use implantable/ingestible biomedical electronic devices.
| Device category | Clinical application | Examples | Related diseases or medical conditions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diagnostic | Pressure monitoring | Blood pressure monitoring | Hypertension[10,11] |
| Intra-cranial pressure (ICP) monitoring | Traumatic brain injury, brain tumor, chronic intracranial hypertension[12-15] | ||
| Intraocular pressure (IOP) monitoring | Glaucoma, ocular hypertension[16-18] | ||
| Intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) monitoring | Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS), Intra-abdominal hypertension[19-21] | ||
| Bladder pressure monitoring | Neurogenic bladder dysfunction[22] | ||
| Temperature monitoring | Core body temperature monitoring | Infection, Thermoregulatory disorder[23,24] | |
| Glucose monitoring | Blood glucose level monitoring | Diabetes mellitus[25,26] | |
| Biomarker monitoring | Cortisol in blood, etc. | Psychiatric disorders[27-29] | |
| Gas monitoring | Gastrointestinal (GI) gas | Irritable bowel syndrome, Inflammatory bowel disease[30,31] | |
| Electrical signal monitoring | Electrogastrogram (EGG), Electrocardiogram (ECG) | Gastroparesis, heart failure[32-34] | |
| Medication adherence monitoring | Medication adherence monitoring | Disease treatment monitoring[35] | |
| Therapeutic drug monitoring | Chemotherapy, anticoagulants | Epilepsy, Anticoagulants, Immunosuppression, Cancer[36-38] | |
| Imaging | Wireless capsule endoscopy | GI bleeding, inflammatory disorder, precancerous tissues[39,40] | |
| Therapeutic | Electrical stimulation | Deep brain stimulation | Parkinson’s disease[41-43] |
| Electric nerve stimulation (spinal cord, vagus nerve, peripheral nerve, etc.) | Diabetic neuropathy, peripheral artery disease, chronic pain relief[44-46] | ||
| Gastric stimulator | Gastroparesis[47-50] | ||
| Drug delivery | To GI tract (e.g., IntelliCap) | ||
| To subcutaneous space (e.g., insulin injection) | |||
| Visual prosthesis | Retinal prostheses | Degenerative retinal diseases (Retinitis pigmentosa (RP)), Age-related macular degeneration (AMD))[51,52] | |
| Hearing assist | Cochlear implants | Hearing loss[53] | |
| Closed-loop | Cardiac assist | Pacemaker | Arrhythmia, heart attack, etc.[54-56] |
| Cardioverter defibrillator(ICD) | |||
| Ventricular assist device | |||
| Kidney assist | Implantable bioartificial kidney | Kidney failure[57,58] | |
| Closed-loop drug delivery | Blood glucose monitor-insulin pump | Diabetes mellitus[59] | |
| Chemotherapy | Cancer[60] | ||
| Anesthesia | Surgical process[61,62] |