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. 2021 Oct 30;21:235. doi: 10.1186/s12874-021-01433-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Bias and coverage of independence estimators in simulation study 1. PE = per-episode; PP = per-patient; AB = added-benefit; PB = policy-benefit. Error bars are 95% confidence intervals based on Monte Carlo standard errors. Scenario 1: Constant treatment effect. Scenario 2: Treatment effect varies across episode. Scenario 3: Treatment effect varies across patients with different values of M_i. Scenario 4: Treatment effect carries forward. Scenario 5: Treatment becomes less effective on re-use. Scenario 6: Treatment effect varies across episodes, across patients with different values of M_i, carries forward, and becomes less effective on re-use