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. 2021 Oct 30;19:354. doi: 10.1186/s12951-021-01100-2

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — Levels of complexity of in vitro GIT models. A Caco-2 cells are widely used for their ability to generate a monolayer characterized by the expression of tight junctions similar to GIT epithelium. B Caco-2 cells co-cultured with HT29 cells are induced to secrete mucus. C Caco-2 conditioned with Raji B cells can differentiate into M-cells, performing transcytosis. D Triple co-cultures allow for the formation of GIT epithelial barrier, mucus secretion, and transcellular transport. (Reprinted from Araújo, F., and Sarmento, B. Towards the characterization of an in vitro triple coculture intestine cell model for permeability studies. 2013. Int J Pharm 15;458(1):128–34. Elsevier.)